The mirror metaphor in Calvin ’ s Institutes : A central epistemological notion ?

In this article U will be argued that the metaphor o f the mirror presents the characteristics o f a central image in Calvin's Institutes o f the Christian Religion. This metaphor manages to crystallize sewral constitutiw elements o f a religious epistemohgy which seemingly cannot he articulated in a satisfactory May without having recourse to it. As a form o f dynamic accommodation, the Calvtnian mirror image provokes an illumination and restores vision. It endeavours to offer a faithful reflection, even though not complete, mainly o f otherwise invisible realities, thus rendering possible the kncM-ledge thereof. "Mankind knowing itself", which becomes knowing only when it manages to envisage itself as a mirror, is another object subjected to the mirror's dynamics.


In trod u ction
The frequent recurrence o f the mirror m etaphor in the French text o f C alvin's Inslilutes o f the C hristian Religion, places it at the foreground o f a detailed study o f m etaphors in the Institutes.This m etaphor appears about thirty tw o times in the four books which constitute this work, far more often than any other single m etaphor.Salient as this recurrence may be, one could legitim ately ask whether it indicates anything more than a decorative figure o f speech under C alvin's pen, even a possible verbal tic.O ne could also pretext the use o f it in the Cliristian literature preceding the Institutes, in order to regard it as a dead m etaphor, one that does not bring any new cognitive element to the frame w here it appears.In truth, the image o f the mirror in Calvin's writings has not gone unnoticed by scholars Already in 1957, W allace noted its significance in his study on C alvin's doctrine o f the W ord and Sacrament (W allace, 1957:24-27), without actually doing much more than naming it.M ore recently, how ever, the relevance o f the m irror m etaphor for an approach o f Calvinian epistem ology w as pointed out by Van der Kooi (1994:385-387).He concludes an article devoted to the basic features o f C alvin's theological epistemology with these words: " In binding human beings to the mirrors o f G o d's revelation, these finally constitute the limit o f human know ledge o f God.For their own sake, human beings have to adhere In die Skriflig 30(4) 1996:419-441 to this limit and not go beyond it."Even though Van der Kooi indeed grants a notable importance to this m etaphor with regard to the topic he tackles, he does not enter into a deeper study o f its meaning, nor o f its epistem ological connotations.The fact that the m irror metaphor often appears in the Institutes when the issue o f true know ledge is addressed, indicates in itself that there is probably more than a purely decorative aspect attached to it: the mirror image rather serves as a significant m arker throughout the text and therefore calls for a more attentive look at its significance.One must immediately add that it would be exaggerated to reduce C alvin's epistemology to the study o f one single metaphor, how ever prominent it may appear at first glance.Such an attem pt would rapidly show its limits.Besides, can one speak o f C alvin's epistemology, as if the Genevan Reform er had construed in his writings a well articulated theory o f know ledge as part o f a philosophical system?The question has already been asked, and has been answ ered negatively.D ow ey (1984:138), supported by Van der Kooi (1994:368), w arns that even though the theological universe o f Calvin is a universe o f knowing, and is cognitive or noetic throughout, it is probably unwise to use the term epistemology in discussing his thought, for the latter "is not rooted in an apprehension o f being, a grasp o f the ontic, or founded on ontological or metaphysical truth formed into propositions" ( c f also Van der W ah, 1974:369).
In agreem ent with this statem ent, the use o f the w ord "epistem ology" in the present article is not to be understood in a philosophicaltechnical sense.The best w ay to give it some consistence here is probably to avoid speaking o f a philosophical epistemology, or even o f a theological epistemology, but rather to qualify it in a religious sense, as one may do with A ugustine's own concern for know ledge ( c f Copplestone, 1985:51) >.
The goal o f the present article will thus be to examine the m ost significant occurrences o f this m etaphor within the last version o f the institutes^ by arguing The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epistemological notion?
To speak only of the "knowledge of God" (to borrow from the titles of both E.A Dowey and T.H L. Parker's studies on this particular aspect of Calvin's thought) would also not be satisfactory here, if only because the cognitive connotations of the mirror metaphor in the Institutes cover the cognitio Dei et nosth For a discussion of relatively recent research on the topic of Calvinian epistemology, c f R C Gamble's "Current trends in Calvin research, 1982Calvin research, -1990Calvin research, " (1994:105-107:105-107). 2 The French edition, dating 1560, has been used here The text consulted is that of the C.N R S , published by J D Benoit The relevant passages will be translated into English for the purpose of this article, using F L Battles' translation wherever the Latin and the French text concur enough and supplying my own translation whenever needed About references: III xxiv 5 -for instance -means third book, chaptcr twenty four, paragraph five In each quote, I used italics to indicate the topic and the vchicle of the metaphor This terminology has been used for its adequation to Calvin's pedagogical purpose when usmg imagery language However, in some of my anaKses, 1 rely on basic elements of M Black's theor>-of metaphor (Black, 1962), especialN when dealing with sets of associated common places It must be noted, though, that I have purposedly the following: as a linguistic and rhetorical device, the m etaphor o f the mirror fulfils the fiinction o f a key tow ards know ledge, and is used as a prominent epistemologica!vehicle.In refining my basic hypothesis, 1 will argue that the most important elem ents o f an epistemological connotation attached to the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes are to be found in the following double connection: • Creation as mirror o f divine glory/Scripture as mirror o f doctnne on the one hand • K nowledge o f G od/know ledge o f man on the other hand To start with, I shall briefly contrast the mirror m etaphor with that o f the labyrinth in the Institutes, for the tw o seem to be used antithetically by Calvin.Tlien, after having defined the general characteristics o f the mirror m etaphor (notably with regard to the Calvinian theme o f accom m odation), a cursory approach o f its link with the Paulinian mirror will be offered.A synchronic approach will be presented thereafter, in the course o f which it will be attem pted to arrive at some conclusions.Finally, a m ore general conclusion will endeavour to m easure the global import o f the m iiror m etaphor in the Institutes, calling tow ards further research; am ong others, the indebtedness o f Calvin tow ards A ugustine's theory o f illumination will be discussed, as well as C alvin's position tow ards some O ckham ist epistem ological features.second general domain (B), w here the mirror m etaphor finds its m ost suitable place, these sub-domains could be listed as follows:

various objects
The first o f these sub-domains is probably the one which has generated the greatest interest by scholars attentive to Calvin's use o f language.For instance, W hite (1994:309-324) has recently devoted an article to the theatre metaphor, Bouwsm a (1988:69) has attributed a central meaning to the labyrinth m etaphor in C alvin's psychology, arguing fi-om a som ew hat psychoanalytic perspective: according to the American scholar, it would indicate a torm ented mind afi-aid o f w andering into insoluble issues (like the doctrine o f predestination, or election) and trying to counter such anxiety.Borrowing from Bouwsm a -even though not adopting all his conclusions -and in term s o f my basic hypothesis, 1 w ould like to suggest that this m etaphor o f the labyrinth presents the antithesis to that o f the mirror.Therefore it deserves some brief consideration here.The following passage is noteworthy in that it precisely juxtaposes and contrasts both m etaphors (it deals with the final resurrection, and the insoluble questions which m any ask regarding the details o f ity*: But since many unwary are easily caught in such allurements, and then are drawn more and more deeply into the labyrinth to the extent that when everyone fancies his own opinion there are endless disputes, the best remedy is to content ourselves, while we are still pilgrims on this earth, to see in a mirror dimly the things which we will eventually see face to face (III.xxv.ll).Firstly then, let them remember that when they enquire about predestination, they enter into the sancmary of divine wisdom, in which if someone interferes and penetrates with too great confidence and boldness, he will never manage to satisfy his curiosity and will enter into a labyrinlh where no exit is to be found (lll.xxi.l).

G en eral ch a ra cteristics o f the C alvinian m irror
The most important general remark regarding the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes is the following: the link betw een this mirror and the well know n Calvinian them e o f accom m odation is evident from the outset^.The m irror presents that The mirror is linked to a reflecting mediation which is absolutely necessary.What one cannot directly see, he contemplates in a reflector whose materiality is the guarantee o f accessibility to human nature; at the same time, this reflector is conceived and oriented in such a way that it is in the best position to capture the light waves coming from above (Kayayan, 1995:275; c f also Van der Kooi, 1994:386).
Thus a com parative study o f several occurrences o f the m irror m etaphor in the Institutes (mainly drawn from the first book o f this w ork), aims at a better understanding o f the nature o f this mediation and its epistem ological import.For each particular case presented, the following four questions must be kept in mind: • W hich object/person is spoken o f in term s o f mirror?
• W hat is reflected in the mirror?
• W ho looks into the mirror?
• W hat is the degree o f clarity o f the image reflected in the mirror?
Since no similar analysis will be offered for each o f the three remaining books o f the Institutes, it is appropriate here to point out the main them es linked to the use o f this metaphor: in book tw o, the mirror is mainly applied to the Bible, envisaged as Holy Scripture by Calvin (thus in line with its use in the first book).
The third book associates the mirror m etaphor more with Christ and the election.
A s for book four, the vehicle o f the mirror is applied not only to the topic o f doctrine, but also to the topics o f sacram ents and even good magistrates.

T h e link w ith the P aulinian use o f the m irror m etap hor
The rhetorical tradition which uses the domain o f optics analogically (light, illumination, darkness etc.) in order to denote some other know ledge constantly perm eates Biblical writings*.The m irror m etaphor appears three tim es in the The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epistemalogical notion?
accommodating Himself to human capacity (Battle, 1977:3-21); 0 .Millet's study of some rhetoric aspects of accommodation m Calvin's writings (1992:247-256).2 Cor.3:18: "But we all, with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, arc changed into the same image from glory to glory even as by the Spirit of the Lord" (KJV).
James 1:23-24: "For if any one is a hearer of the word and not a doer, he is like a man who observes his natural face in a mirror, for he observes himself and goes away and at once forgets what he was like" (RSV).
According to Gcsenius (1962:458), the word mar ah, generally used in the Old Testament with the meaning of "vision coming from God", "nocturnal apparition", is once used with the meaning of "bronze mirror", in Exodus 38:8.
The mirror metaphor in Paul's epistles to the Corinthians has been studied in detail by N Hugcde (Lji inctaphorc du miroir dans les Epitres de Saint Paul aux Corinthiens, Neuchatel, 1957) An English review of this study by F.W. Danker can be read in the

Concordia Theological Monthly
"The law is like a mirror in which we first contemplate our weakness, then the iniquity ansing from this, and finally the curse coming from both, just as we can sc« in a mirror the spots on our face" (II vii 7).
Cf 111 xxii 1 "Augustine wisely notes this: namely, that we have in the very Head of the church a most clear mirror of free election ( .)", c f also III xxiv 5 "Chnst.then, is the mirror wherein we must contemplate our own election And we will contemplate it there without deception" The following example (111 ii I) confirms the associaUon made by Calvin between tlie mirror metaplior and a Paulinian text, as well as the degree of clanty and of ultimate knowledge borne by the mirror: "He also say s elsewhere that the gkjry of God IS visible to us in the face of Christ, and that all knowledge is given to us in that mirror (2 Cor 4 6 ) " In die S h ijlig 30(4) 1996 ■119-4-11 13:12)?At first sight, one could well think so.D oesn't 1 Corinthians 13:12 indeed speak o f "seeing in a mirror dimly"?Inversely, w e have ju st seen that Calvin mostly uses the mirror m etaphor in order to indicate clarity and not darkness.Such a discrepancy could then be ascribed to the different m aterials or manufacturing techniques for mirrors respectively used in Corinth during the apostle Paul's life and during the sixteenth century.If die H ebrew s had at their disposal mirrors m ade o f polished brass, the Etruscans, the Rom ans and the G reeks used bronze for that purpose.G lass mirrors w ere introduced much later, when Venice gained fame at the eve o f the fourteenth century with these: the original manufacturing technique consisted in applying an amalgam o f tin and mercury at the back o f a glass (Anon., 1961:3329-3300)'<>.
H ow ever, commenting on 1 Corinthians 13:12 Fee (1987:647-648) points out the following: The first sentence (...) is particularly relevant to their setting, since Corinth was famous as the producer o f the finest bronze mirrors in antiquity.That suggests that the puzzling phrase en ainigm ali [dimly] is probably not as pejorative as most translations imply.More likely the emphasis is not on the quality o f seeing that one experiences in looking in a mirror -that would surely have been an affront to them -but to the indirect nature of looking into a mirror as opposed to seeing someone face to face.
Fee adds that in contem porary culture, a similar m etaphor w ould be that o f photography: as successful as it m ay be, it is never the thing or the person se lf Actually F ee's commentary on this issue seem s to concur with the Calvinian exegesis o f that same Pauhnian passage.In his own com m entary on 1 Corinthians, Calvin stresses that the ministry o f the W ord, as well as the means required for the exercise thereof, are that which is com pared to a mirror.God, otherw ise invisible, has appointed these m eans in order to reveal H im self to mankind (Calvin, 1989a:429).The same applies to the structure o f the universe.Thus, Calvin goes on arguing, w e have to understand that the know ledge o f God which w e obtain through His W ord is indeed true and certain, and that there is nothing in it which is confused or obscure (Calvin, 1989a:430), If, by w ay o f com parison, one speaks o f it in term s o f "obscurity" , it is because it is adapted to a state o f imperfection and childhood.As such, it is by far inferior to the clear manifestation that one will have o f it the day he will see "face to face" .The link betv^een Calvin and this kind of devotional literature appears in Dc Jong's article "An anatomy of all parts of the soul Insights into Calvin's spintuaiit>' from his Psalms commentarv" (Dc Jong.W 4 1 -I4 ), for it has a section entitled "The mirror of the soul" Dc Jong (1994 3), talking about the Preface to the Psalms conimcntarv , writes "The mirror metaplior, which he has twice employed, is the ke>' to his purpose for including here, in uncharactcristicalK Calvinian fashion, a reviov of his o w t i life The Psalms are the anatomy of his soul Thc> \ividly reflect the swirling, wide-ranging, sometimes conflicting and tompcimg religious dispositions of thii complex and scnsitiv'c man of Geneva as he strove to live faithftill\ before the face of God " In die Skrijlig i()(4) 1996:419-441 A ll Augustine (I.xv.4 and Ill.xxii.l).In the first o f these, Calvin distances him self from Augustinian anthropology: the latter takes the soul to be a m irror o f the Trinity in so far as it would com prise in itself intelligence, will and memory.For Calvin, such a mirror is only a speculation, not a true reflection.On the other hand, the m etaphor o f Christ as "a very clear m irror o f fr e e election" is described by him as "carefully considered" under A ugustine's pen.The important thing to note here is that in spite o f C alvin's rejection o f the first o f these tw o occurrences in its application, he seems to accept the supposed cognitive intention o f the mirror m etaphor such as Augustine uses it.Nearly all the wisdom we possess, that is to say, true and sound wisdom, consists in two parts; namely that in knowing God, each o f us should also know himself Besides, although the two are joined by many bonds, which one precedes and brings forth the other is not easy to discern (I.i. 1).

C reation as a m irror o f divine glory
H ere, the French text, unlike the Latin one^, structures the tw o kinds o f know ledge by indicating in the very wording that which Calvin underlines at the end o f this first chapter: Yet, however the knowledge of God and ourselves may be mutually connected, and the one may relate to the other one, the order o f right teaching requires that we first discuss what is knowing God, then proceed afterward to treat the latter (I.i. 1).
As will soon becom e clear, the mirror m etaphor m the Institutes becom es the vehicle o f this double know ledge, even o f the w ay it is structured.
In the fu-st instance, the universe is envisaged by Calvin as a m irror in which mankind should be able to contem plate God: Above all, we cannot in one glance survey this most artistic construction of the universe without being completely overwhelmed by an infinite bright ness.It is therefore rightly so that the author o f the Epistle to the Hebrews calls the universe a representation or a spectacle o f things invisible (Heb.11:3) since its construction so skillfully ordered is fo r us a mirror in which we can contemplate God, who is otherwise invisible (l.v.I).There is no doubt that the Lord would have us uninterraptedly occupied in this holy meditation; that, while we contemplate in all creatures, as in mirrors, those immense riches o f his wisdom, justice, goodness and power, we should not merely run over them cursorily, and immediately forget about them; but we should ponder them at length, turn them over in our minds seriously and faithfully, and recollect them repeatedly (l.xiv.21).
Thus the mirror reflectm g visible things refers us to invisible realities, something which confronts us de fa c to with the dynamic character o f its mediation.A ccording to Calvin, these invisible realities should constitute the object o f m ankind's meditation.It is actually the function p a r excellence o f this mirror: it does not merely offer a neutral reflection, but supported by this dynam ic • mediation, it serves as a catalyst to human meditation.
According to Calvin, man can also find G od in himself, if he tries hard enough.This illustrates the mutual connection established betw een know ledge o f G od and know ledge o f ourselves: Indeed, if there is no need to go outside ourselves to comprehend God, what pardon will the indolence of that man deserve who is loath to descend within himself to find God who lives there?( ..) Thereby he not only presents a very clear mirror o f God's work in the common way humankind is governed, but he also specifies that infants, while they nurse at their mother's breasts, have tongues so eloquent to preach his glory that there is no need at all of other orators (I.v.3).This idea is particularly stressed in chapter 15 o f the first book, w hich deals with m ankind "in its creation".There the issue o f the im ago D ei is dealt with, among other topics: Nevertheless, it seems that we do not have a full definition o f this 'image' if we do not see more plainly why mankind must be held in esteem, and fo r which prerogatives it should he deemed to be a mirror o f God's glory (1.XV.4), In the same chapter Calvin exposes the elem ents o f his antliropology, which intends to show the connection existing betw een know ledge o f G od and know ledge o f oneself ^ In m an's creation one finds an additional testim ony o f divine glory.

________________________________________________________________________ Eric Kayayan
Cf 1 XV, 1 "We must now speak of the creation of man; not only becausc among all God's work here is the noblest and most remarkable example of his justice, wisdom, and In die Skri/lig 30(4) 1996:419-441

T he m irror o f Scripture
Up to now w e have had to do with occurrences o f the mirror m etaphor w hich -if one would only consider them -might lend weight to the idea that Calvin advocates a kind o f natural theology: w e would be in a position to gain an adequate know ledge o f God by contemplating the universe, nature, mankind itself.But there is a second constituent o f the meaning o f the mirror m etaphor in the first book o f tlie Institutes, all the above-mentioned testim onies are insufficient, in so far as too much light actually blinds fallen mankind.Besides, paradoxically enough, this confirms the degree o f clarity o f the Calvinian metaphorical mirror (since a lack o f light is not to blame for this state o f affairs): But although the Lord represents both him self and his everlasting Kingdom in the mirror o f his works with very great clarity, such is our stupidity that we grow increasingly dull toward so manifest testimonies, and they flow away without profiting us ( 1. v. 11).
Thus another mirror, that o f Scripture or o f doctrine, becom es necessary.This necessity is presented in chapters 8 and then 14 o f book one ( c f Millet, 1992:208.A m ost interesting discussion o f the possibility o f a natural theology within C alvin's concept o f law is offered by Hesselink (1992:62-67) in a chapter entitled "Creation and law ").In several instances throughout the Institutes, one will find this mirror o f doctrine through which, Calvin argues, G od reveals H im self in His W ord ( c f Bates, 1992:146-147;W allace, 1957:24-27): " In short, his [M oses'] sole Song is a clear m irror in which G o d appears in a m anifest way (Deut.32)" (I.viii.6).
The same m etaphor appears in a slightly more developed w ay (follow ed by a simile) in chapter 14: In short, let us remember that God, who is invisible and whose wisdom, power and righteousness are incomprehensible, has set before our eyes Moses ' history as a mirror in which he wants his likeness to glow fo r us.For just as eyes, when dimmed with age or weakness or by some other defect, unless aided by spectacles, discern nothing distinctly; so, such is our feebleness, unless Scripture guides us in seeking God, we are immediately confused (I.xiv.l).

It thus seem s as if the argument o f a natural theology is forcefully presented by Calvin, in order to enable him to dem onstrate on the contrary and by m eans o f the
The mirror metaphor in C alvin' s Institutes: A cenlral epi.siemological nolion^______________ goodness, but because, as we said at the beginning, wc cannot have a dear and complete knowledge of God unless it is accompanied by a corresponding knowledge of ourselves " About Calvinian anthropology and the way it has been assessed, cf the article of Havis (1994 406-»18) mirror o f Scripture (here the history o f M oses) the insufficiency thereof.The mirror is indeed at the centre o f the fundamental epistem ological issue which consists in structuring natural know ledge and revealed knowledge.A second ordering is added, that o f the know ledge o f G od and o f man, in their mutual hierarchical relationship.This second ordering is also characterized by the same m etaphor, as one can see in the citation taken from I.xv.4; if mankind "sh o u ld be deem ed to be a m irror o f G o d 's g lo ry " because o f some o f his prerogatives, it is because he is the object in which this glory is reflected.
An appropriate know ledge o f him self is not possible if one does not take into account this divine reflection w hich he receives and sends back by reflecting it.Thus, for Calvinian epistem ology, "mankind know ing its e lf' becom es such only from the moment it m anages to consider itself as a mirror.Symmetrically and sim ultaneously though, the know ledge obtained by contemplating some human prerogatives (the very mirror) refers us to G o d 's glory, which is perceived more distinctly by this channel.Tims the mediation o f the mirror is exerted in both ways.
This illustrates the fact that tlie expression o f these tw o orderings is dependent upon a factor relative to the mirror m etaphor as a linguistic device.The topic o f the m etaphor is double and real: there is that which is presented in term s o f mirror and that w hich is reflected in the mirror (the latter referring to a second real object).A ctually the mirror is always som ething reflecting som ething else which com es and " inhabits" this mirror under the form o f a reflection.This second real object is invisible for mankind until it becom es visible thanks to the mediation o f the mirror, that is w hy the latter can be described as " dynam ic", since it m akes som ething appear which otherw ise could not be seen or perceived.From then on, w e see tw o things in one and it is clear that the m etaphorical mirror necessarily functions in both w ays, even though the angle o f exposition only indicates one o f the two: in I.v.3, for instance, something divine is reflected in the government o f mankind.The accent lies on the characterization o f human government (it bears with it some divine characteristics).H ow ever, at the same time and symm etrically, one can look into the government o f mankind in order to com prehend a particular divine characteristic and discover a reflection o f it.This underlines the fact that from the Calvinian linguistic a n d m etaphorical view point, transcendent reality (the divine and invisible things) and immanent reality (here the human things) are indissociably linked, though without being confused.Here Calvin implicitly maintains that this very clear mirror is presented to us by the W ord o f God expressed by David.By making such a reference to a Biblical w riting at this very moment o f his argument'**, and taking into account the status o f special revelation which he grants to Biblical writings, he implicitly argues that a knowledge o f G od through some other aspect o f the universe, becom es clearly accessible to mankind only once exposed in the special revelation.The first mirror (o f Creation) needs the second one (Scripture) so that w hat it reflects can be rightly assessed for w hat it is, even though this first mirror existed before the second one has appeared'*.

T he im p licit m eth odological p reced en ce
The above-m entioned am bivalence is illustrated by two other passages o f this chapter five.They will lead us to a deeper appreciation o f the significance o f the mirror m etaphor for our issue: "And certainly how ever much the glory o f God shines forth, scarcely one man in a hundred is a true spectator o f it!"(I.v.8 ).
The tw ofold question asked here is the following: W here, and by whom can one find such a know ledge, if " scarcely one man in a hundred is a true spectator" o f G od's glory?Can it even be said that such a know ledge exists?The second The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epistemological notion?Biblical citations, it is In order to consolidate a noniral general knowledge of God, rather than establishing this knowledge in the first instance The stud; of the mirror metaphor in this context forces me, however, to doubt whether this is indeed the case citation brings an answ er to this question and again introduces the mirror metaphor: For this reason, the apostle, in that very passage where he calls the worlds the images of things invisible, adds that through faith we understand that they have been fashioned by God's word (Heb. 11:3).He means by this that even though G o d 's invisible majesty is made manifest by such mirrors, we have not tlie eyes to see this unless they be illumined by the inner revelation given from above (I.v.13).
For Calvin, such a icnowiedge is the fruit o f faith, and he discloses in the very method o f his exposition an essential aspect o f his basic presupposition, namely that a know ledge o f God characterized by faith precedes any other true knowledge.The fact that the tw o citations o f H ebrew s 11:3 (I.v.l and I.v.13 just quoted) are accom panied by the mirror metaphor, as well as the w ay in w hich this is done, illustrate that point: the first citation occurs at the very beginning o f chapter 5, the second at the very end o f it.The m etaphor seem s to be used both tim es with the same connotations.H ow ever, w hereas the first tim e the idea o f a know ing faith is absent o f it (the quote o f H ebrew s 11:3 is so to speak truncated'*), the second time this idea is restored: "(...) the apostle, in that very p assage where he calls the worlds the im ages o f things invisible, adds that through fa ith we understand that they have been fa sh io n e d b y G o d 's w ord This idea can now lead to the next chapter {"Scripture is n eed ed as guide and teacher f o r anyone who w ould com e to G od the C reator").
W ithin chapter 5, Calvin has created an artificial gap betw een the two occurrences o f the quotation o f H ebrew s 11:3 in order to argue that no true know ledge is possible unless the second pole be reached (the pole o f faith leading to Scripture).U nless this pole be reunited with that o f natural know ledge, a fundamental insufficiency will always remain.Tlie role played by the mirror m etaphor in this w ay o f reasoning is the following: as already noticed, this insufficiency com es from an excess o f light reflected in the different mirrors presented to us*' .But this light is precisely w hat leads us tow ards the invisible, G od, whom man should contemplate af\er having contem plated the " construction o f the universe" .H ow can one paradoxically m ove from a light blinding and C f I.v. 1 C f also I V 13: "It is therefore in vain that so many burning lamps shine for us in the workmanship of the universe to show forth the glory of its Author Although they bathe us wholly in their radiance, yet they can of themselves in no way lead us into the right path Surely they strike some sparks, but before their fuller light shines forth, they are smothered." In die Skrijlig 30( 4) 1996:419-441 m infinite to the invisible G od w ho lets H im self be contem plated?Is such an accom modation possible?It is possible, but only through the mediation o f a "mirror" o f which the nature, in the Calvinian m etaphorical use o f it, is to offer a much deeper perspective than the mere reflection o f w hat is (the latter only blinds us).Actually, this mediation operates a transformation w hich changes the content o f the vision, reshaping it, so to speak.In w hich way?By the passage o f one mirror to another one.There are indeed tw o mirrors presented in C alvin's writings: the one offering as clear a reflection as the other (Creation and Scripture).Both should be approached by faith.They reflect the same object and should logically be one and same mirror.H ow ever, the first o f them, without having lost anything o f its clarity, is not accessible to eyes w hich have becom e "rheumy" (in French: chassieux).In other w ords, the glory o f G od w hose reflection should be seen in the m irror o f Creation, is not perceived by mankind anymore.Therefore, the mirror o f Scripture discloses in a totally satisfying manner the image reflected by the previous one.The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epistemological notion?
18 Cf,I.vi.2.However, couldn't this mirror of doctnne also be made obscure, like the previous one?At the beginning of the same paragraph, Calvin insists on the certainty of the doctnne imprinted into the heart of the divine ministers: God confirms His Word and makes it constantly known throughout the ages Moreover, Calvin exposes his doctrine of the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit as one of the forms of this confirmation {"ratification") 19 Not following this order would be nsking to fall back into the labyrinth "If we turn aside from the Word, as I have just now said, though we may stnve with strenuous haste, yet, since we have got off the track, we shall never reach the goal For we should so reason that the splendor of the divine countenance, which even the apostle calls 'unapproachable' (I Tim 6:16) is for us like a labyrinth which tangles us up from all sides, if we do not have the Word to direct us" (I vi,3) Scripture accepted by faith allows to com pensate for such a deficiency.Thus the dynam ic aspect o f this mirror is confirmed since it brings more than a mere reflection -it provokes an illumination.W e can therefore note that a split betw een tw o kinds o f vision has taken place: the first one, w hich one could describe as "natural", perceives only the object o f the mirror o f Creation, without seeing the reflection which shines forth through it; the second, illuminated, unites in the same vision the mirror and w hat it reflects.
A last exam ple taken from the first book o f the Institutes reinforces my contention, nam ely that Calvin does not present the mirror o f special revelation in a diachronic w ay, but that the latter is the necessary counterpoint for any enlightened human look at the world.Not only the visible things o f Creation are a mirror in which man can contem plate God, but the heavenly spirits themselves, w hose ministry G od uses in order to communicate to human beings, fiilfil this function: For it would not be reasonable to pass over without honor those instruments througli which God particularly shows forth the presence of his divine majesty.Likewise, on this account they are more than once called gods, because in their ministry as in a mirror they in some respect exhibit his divinity to us (I.xiv.5), For Calvin, such creatures reflect the image o f G od in so far as they carry His W ord in a special way.
W e have seen that the mirror is not neutral, but that its function is to prompt mankind to m editate; it is even used as a catalyst for such a meditation.This active role o f the mirror takes its full import during the dynam ic passage which man is invited to effect -through the resulting illumination -from the first mirror to the second.Truly, the great majority o f the rem aining occurrences o f the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes will only be an extension o f this m irror o f doctrine, applied to some particular themes which CaK in w ants his reader to m editate upon.The mirror possesses a dynamic character, transforming the vision by an illumination; it actually allows recovery o f a lost vision.This dynamic character stimulates meditation.

C on clu sion
One can perceive two things in this mirror: from this conjunction derives a close association o f realities which, how ever, have a different ontological status.One could say that this generates a definite optimism as to the possibility o f knowing more, once this association is established.The anxiety o f finding oneself trapped into the labyrinth has therefore been exorcized.
" M ankind know ing its e lf' becom es knowing only when it m anages to envisage itself as a mirror.M ankind receives in itself the reflection o f something else and at the same time points tow ards that " som ething else" by sending back the reflection.Far from envisaging for man a status o f autonomy, Calvin, by placing him within the boundaries o f his m etaphorical mirror, ascribes to him the domain o f his cognitive activity: neither limited to the dimensions o f a m irror's frame w here he would not read any transcendent reflection anymore, nor the absolute possessor o f a reflection which exceeds him, even though it inhabits him.Thus, it seems that both secularist and mystical poles are avoided in this "neither ... nor ..." position.
Thus envisaged, the metaphor o f the mirror in the Institutes presents a rem arkable linguistic phenom enon, in so far as it manages to crystallize and present several constitutive elements o f a religious epistemology which seemingly cannot be articulated in a satisfactory w ay without having recourse to that metaphor: it regularly appears during the main moments o f the exposition o f them es related to a know ledge o f a superior kind.Therefore one can say in that sense that this metaphor plays a central role in John Calvin's religious epistemology.The latter breaks with Platonic epistemology, even though at the start it uses the same vocabulary (light, blindness provoked by the sensible reality): the shadow s perceived in relation with the transcendent reality o f pure ideas are replaced by a trustworthy reflection, in so far as it is the result o f an illumination.This illumination replaces the ascending way tow ards the Ideas which, according to Plato, is the prerogative o f philosophy via dialectics and m athem atics (Brun, 1988:43-44).As such, sensible reality is not deceitful.O nce the illumination has occurred, it is not a matter o f avoiding this reality but -on the contrary -o f observing it with more attention than ever, both for w hat it is and for what it reflects, the tw o being inseparably linked together For sure the illumination does not allow to contemplate face to face totally transcendent realities, but it brings them down to human range.The knowledge which w e can have here is satisfying, even though still limited and in any case always in a kind o f expectation.
The role o f the visual element m C alvin's epistem ology, as opposed to the auditive one, is at stake here and the study o f the mirror m etaphor m akes it possible to discern better its proper place.Torrance (1965:140-160), in a significance article on "K nowledge o f G od and speech about Him according to John Calvin", has stressed the fact that partly under the influence o f John M ajor (deem ed to have been one o f C alvin's teachers at the College o f M ontaigu in Paris, him self very much indebted to Duns Scott) C alvin's intuitive know ledge o f G od is intuitiva auditio, intuitive auditive know ledge arising in and through G o d 's W ord. Torrance (1965:150) is worth quoting at this point o f the discussion: Even Major insisted on thinking through the problems of perception in our natural knowledge in terms o f hearing as well as seeing -this means, as Calvin must have realised through Major's teaching, that the place o f vision in our knowledge has but a limited range and that perceptibility cannot be taken as the final criterion o f intuitive evident knowledge.There is no point, o f course, in rejecting the proper place of vision in theological knowledge, but it cannot be allowed to dissolve away the auditive element, which is basic and essential.
H ere, the extent to which Calvin could have been influenced by A ugustine's theory o f illumination is at stake.Torrance argues against such an influence.For the Scottish theologian, the G reek em phasis on the centrality o f the visual aspect for cognition perm eates A ugustine's idea o f the Logos.This em phasis manifests itself, am ong other forms, as follows: In the Augustinian outlook nature was looked at only to be looked through toward God and the eternal realities.As such it had no significance in itself but had a significance only in so far as it reflected heavenly patterns and was moved by an immanent longing for them (Torrance, 1965:142).
In contradistinction, Calvin, gripped by a Biblical doctrine o f the W ord, would have insisted that know ledge o f God is reached primarily by hearing rather than by seeing (Torrance, 1965:150) The metaphor of light (...) is tacitly most emphatic, denoting that men are altogether destitute o f light, except in so far as the Lord shines upon them.If this is true of the light of life, how shall we be able to behold the light of the heavenly world, unless the Spirit o f God enlighten us?For we must maintain that the measure of understanding with which men are by nature endued is such that 'the light shineth in darkness, but the darkness comprehendeth it not', (John 1:5) and that men are enlightened only by a supernatural gift (...) I w ould like to suggest that the Calvinian version o f the theory o f illumination com bines the visual aspect o f cognition and the inluitiva auditio by m eans such as the mirror m etaphor, since the latter is applied to Scripture as Word: W ord heard, but destined to provoke an illumination, restore vision and change the look o f mankind on the whole o f reality.
H owever, the relevance o f this study does not only stem from the link with Augustine, but also from the links betw een Calvin and late Scholasticism, particularly the O ckham ist tradition^^.Here again, Torrance (1965:152) offers an important departure point: In his doctrine o f intuitive perception Ockham denied that the mind operates with media between it and objects that are somehow copies o f those objects.We apprehend objective realities directly, not by means of some sensible or intelligible species in medio.
The question w hich I should like to ask with regard to the m etaphorical m irror in the Institutes is the following: Did Calvin replace the species in m edio rejected by Ockham, by the speculum in m edio, the mirror in the middle, the second not being an ontological category, but the only linguistic m eans to denote the cognitive contact o f the restored human mind with true knowledge?

W
hen considering the bulk o f m etaphors and similes in the Institutes, one can identify four general dom ains which give a relatively satisfactory account o f C alvin's main sources when using imagery: A. Nature, created reality B. Products o f human activity C. Characters D. State/condition, change o f state/condition Each o f these dom ains could be subdivided in several sub-domains.W ithin the Eric Kayayan avoided any hea\7 dq>endcncc on modem theones of metaphor in my own analy ses, the reason being that my conclusions about the epistemological import of the mirror metaphor in the Insiituies lead me to strongly question the philosophical presuppositions lying at the core of them This unfortunately cannot be discusscd here but could make the object of an article of its own In die Skn/Iig 30(4) 1996:419-441 Calvin's Institutes: A central epislemological notion' s______________ 3 The relationship between the Paulinian and the Calvinian use of the mirror metaphor will be discussed hereafter It should already be noted that this passage is the only one of the thirty two occurrences which borrows directly from Paul's well known statement of I Connthians 13; 12 422 In die Skrijlin }0(4) 1996:419-441 A ctually the labyrinth m etaphor appears about seven tim es in the Institutes, notably when Calvin speaks about the Trinity (I,xiii.21),It is also used, although not directly, in connection with the theme o f predestination^:

4
The actual topic of the metaphorical uttcrancc here is the divltK wisdom, not prcdcstinalKxi as such, although the two arc closeK related 5 Much has alrcad\ been written about the theme of accommodation by Calvin Let us just incntion here C Ashlc> 's doctoral thesis (1972), FW Banles'seminal article about God III die Skriflig 30(4) 1996:419-441 ^ which must be seen within a limited frame.It reduces and brings down to human reach reahties w hich otherw ise would be imperceptible: C f the Johanmne wntmgs in particular Thus envisaged, the first chapter of the first book of the Institutes could be considered as an introduction to the thematics of light in that work (cf paragraphs 2 and 3) Note as well in book 1 the title of chaptcr 5 (the mirror metaphor appears four times there): "The knowledge of God shines forth in the fashioning of the universe and in the continuing government of it " N ew Testam ent (1 Corinthians 13;12; 2 Corinthians 3:18, Jam es 1:23^) One should, how ever, note that o f the 32 occurrences o f that same m etaphor in the Institutes, only tw o (II.vii.7 and lll.xx v.l 1) directly refer to these passages o f the N ew Testament.The first example recalls Jam es 1:23*.The second one, referring to 1 Corinthians 13:12 (III.xxv11), has already been quoted.Strangely Calvin often introduces the mirror m etaphor in his quotes from the N ew Testam ent, although the m etaphor is actually not found in any G reek manuscript.For instance, in his com m entary on chapter 15 o f 1 Corinthians, Calvin m akes a reference to H ebrew s 11:13 as if a mirror w ere m entioned tliere.This actually underscores the im portance w hich he grants to this metaphor.But he uses it most o f the time in order to signify the clear and satisfying reflection o f an image' .Therefore, the questions which one could ask concerning the relationship existing betw een the Paulinian mirror and the Calvinian mirror are the following: does a discrepancy exist betw een their respective degree o f clarity and does Calvin m ove aw ay from P aul's use o f the mirror m etaphor (with the exception o f the occurrence already quoted which refers directly to P aul's text in 1 Corinthians 1 Cor.13:12: "For now we see in a mirror, dimly, but then face to face Now I know in part, then 1 shall understand fiilly, even as I have been fiilly understood" (RSV).
The scope o f this article does not allow me to elaborate on a diachronic com parison betw een the Calvinian mirror and its more recent predecessors.Some fathers o f the Church (like Saint John o f D am ascenes) do use the mirror m etaphor in their writings, as does later the Cistercian tradition (during the 11th and 12th centimes*).Special mention must be m ade o f A ugustine, in so far as tw o occurrences o f the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes are actiially citations o f Eric Kayaycm1Regarding St John of Damascenes, cf.'Orationcs dc imaginibus tres" (Scriptonum 2.5 = 3,2 ligne 12), Dialectica sive Capita philosophica" (Scriptonum, section 1, ligne 18).Regarding the Cistercian tradition, c f for instance "The mirror of charity" by Aelred dc Rievaulx (I9<W), or "The mirror of faith" by Guillaume dc SaintThierry (1979).Here the mirror bccomes the symbol of an intimate and deepened spiritual kiwwlcdge C f also, this time in Dutch literature."The minor of ever\inan's salvation", an anonjmous piece of the 15th centur>' (Conly el a l , I9i(5) Devotional literature of this kind finds one of its highest expression in the famous "Miroir dc I'Amc Pcchcrcsse" (contcmporarv of the Insiilules) by Marguente de Valois, sister of king Franfois the first (to whom the Inslituies is dedicated).
Eight o f the eleven occurrences o f the mirror m etaphor within the general context o f the first book o f the Institutes illustrate the know ledge o f G od (four o f them come from chapter 5 alone).This know ledge is presented as the object o f w isdom in the w ell-know n initial sentences o f the Institutes'.
The mirror metaphor inCalvin's  Institutes: A central epistemological notion?Dei cognitionc et nostri 428 In die Skrijlig }0(4) 1996:419-441 Later, in chapter 14, G od's qualities are in the same line offered to the contem plation o f mankind, through the mirror o f creation: o f the m irror o f S crip tu re o ver the m irror o f C reation in C alvinian ep istem ology This issue lies at the heart o f the w hole problem atic concerning the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes and deserves careful consideration at this point ___________________________________________________________________ Eric Kayayan in dieSkrijlig 30(4) 1996:419-441Actually, the precedence (or not) o f Scripture over Creation in Calvinian epistemology has long been debated.Among others, D ow ey (1965:83) w rites the following:Strictly speaking, Calvin's evaluation of these elements o f the revelation in creation does not belong to his 'natural theology'.It is only from the stand point of special revelation that one can judge property the revelation in creation, since the fall o f man.M y purpose here is to show how the study o f the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes confirms D ow ey's appreciation, while bringing some new elements linked to the use o f this specific image.The citation taken from l.v.3 w here D avid "( .) presents a very clear m irror o f G o d 's work in the com m on way hum ankind is g overned (...)" is rather am bivalent once considered from the perspective o f the distinction betw een natural revelation (via Creation) and special revelation (via a revealed W ord).

14
We must note that Calvin has not yet started tackhng the issue of the divine ongin of the Bible as special revelation; this will only take place in the next chapter 15 However, according to McGrath (1990 153), Calvin does not make any call to a specifically Chnstian source of revelation dunng the first chapters of the InsUtuies His line of argument is based on an empirical observation and reasoning If Calvin introduces For which reason is it now a satisfying reflection?B ecause, Calvin says, it is " i/je m irror in which G o d wants his image to shine fo rth f o r us" (I.xiv. 1 )i*.In the case o f the m irror o f the w orks o f Creation contem plated by mankind without the help o f Scripture, the "perversity o f our ju d g e m e n t" can becom e the rule, w hereas in the case o f G o d 's w orks presented in the mirror o f Scripture, "they are considered as is right and proper, nam ely by the im m utable truth which is the rule o f them " (I.vi.3)i' .It is thus in agreement with his own methodology that Calvin speaks first o f Creation as a clear m iiror o f divine glory, since in order to do so he leans on the illumination which he implicifly attributes to the mirror o f Scripture: he quotes the latter and leans on it before even presenting it as illuminating.For Calvin, accom m odation is effected by the mediation o f the mirror o f Scripture, which com municates to the first mirror a now visible reflection o f divine glory.According to him, the problem is a deficient human vision which must be com pensated for, not the objective deficiency o f the reflection offered by the mirror o f Creation.Only an illumination taking place via the mirror o f Before attem pting a cursory com parative assessm ent o f C alvin's religious epistem ology in the light o f the mirror m etaphor in the Institutes, I shall summ arize four main connotations w hich, it has been suggested, characterize the m etaphoncal m irror globally envisaged: * This mirror, particulariy that o f Scripture, implies accom modation: it is first the m eans by w hich any human vision o f invisible things is m ade possible.M oreover, it gives a frame to this vision, it detennines the limits o f the latter (they are adapted to human hmits).It also offers a faithful reflection o f the things reflected.The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epislemological notion?♦ * ^®. W ithout denying the Calvinian insistence on intuitiva auditio, it remains to be seen w hether C ahan ow es nothing to A ugustine's theory o f illumination and w hether the m etaphorical mirror does not _______________ ____ _____________________________________________________ Eric Kayayan 20 According to Torrancc, Major "failed to think this out to the end, for in the last analysis he tended to lapse into the Augustinian notion of vision".It must be noted that Torrance's article has been criticized on at least one side: Dowey (1984:138) reproaches him for not paying any attention to the Calvinian principle of accommodation, and not offering a single citation of Calvin's work In die Sknflig 30(4) I996.-119-44!offer here a reform ed version o f such a theory^l.Commenting on Psalm 36 verse 9b ( "In thy light do we see light "),Calvin (1989b: 12)  writes:

I
shall conclude by saying that a deeper philosophical study o f the mirror m etaphor within Calvinian epistemology could shed light more adequately on the The mirror metaphor in Calvin's Institutes: A central epistemological notion?______________21 Augustine accqjtcd that "wc cannot pcrccivc the immutable truth of thmgs unless they are illuminated as by a sun This divine light, which illummes the mind, comes from God, which is the 'intelligible light', in whom and by whom and through whom all things which are luminous to the intellect become luminous" (Copplestone, 1985:62, c f also 63-67) 22 The issue of late mediaeval influences upon Calvin has been dealt with by McGrath in a very well documented article C f in particular the issue of Calvin's aligning himself with the via nomtnalium, under the form of the schoia AugusUmana moJerna (McGrath. The mirror metaphor inCalvin's Institutes: A central epistemological notion?______________Calvinian thought must be kept in mmd if one w ants to assess the degree o f clarity granted by Calvin to his m etaphorical mirror.Thus, if we take Jacob as a miiTor o f election (lll.xxii.5),wedo not contem plate election in itself, but a substitute which offers to us the closest reflection o f election.As such, and taking into account the fram ework o f accom m odation, this m irror isaccording to Calvin -w orthy o f being accepted with trust as offering a satisfying image o f the object w hich one tries to reflect.The m irror can only be a mirror in so far as it offers a reflection (even though the latter refers to an existing reality).Inversely, to seek in the mirror the essence o f the very object (that is: ignoring the aspect o f accom m odation) would be risking to w ander into the labyrinth (c fVan d erK o o i, 1994:385)Concerning the relationship betw een the Paulinian m irror metaphor and the CaKnnian use o f that same image, one can thus conclude that certain similarities exist betw een the tw o, in spite o f some difference in the perception o f the mirror: this difference is due to tw o different historical and cultural contexts.However, in the end w hat counts in both cases is the difference betw een the reflection o f an image and the real object.Less important is the quality o f the image reflected in the mirror.Besides, both are referring to mirrors o f great qualit>', if considered in their respective context.
respective composition In both cases the mirror is convex, slightly curving the reflected image But it is also particularly glossy, as the light which it sends back indicates There is little doubt that Calvin, during his life, would have been able to sec and admire mirrors of great qtiality (for instance while visiting at Ferrara the duchess Rcnec of France early in 1536, or while being at the court of Marguerite of Valois in Ncrac)These elem ents o f ay the constitutive elem ents o f this m etaphor relate to each other.By drawing m ore system atic conclusions, such a study would allow one to appreciate better the uniqueness o f C alvin's views in this domain, not only in relation with Plato, Augustine or Ockham , but also with D escartes and the English philosophical school o f the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.U ltim ately, the Calvinian contribution should help us to reassess the Enlightenment and its rationalism against w hat seems to be a genuine form o f Christian Enlightenm ent.ANON.1961.Mirror.(//) Universal World Reference Encyclopedia, 9;3329-3300.)ASHLEY, C. 1972.John Calvin's utilization o f the principle o f accommodation and its continuing significance for an understanding o f the principle o f Biblical language.Fort W orth, Texas : Southwest Baptist Theological Seminary (Unpublished Ph.D dissertation.) 1992:21-22), w