Theology can be described by the following five characteristics (cf. Erickson 2001:16):

Hendriks (2004:24) talks about a fundamental shift in practising theology. The shift is from ‘obediently analysing and systematising’ our faith tradition usually done by theologians to ‘participating obediently’ in God's missional praxis from the local faith community.⁷ Wright (2006:21) indicates that an earlier understanding of theology was all about God, what he is like and what his actions entail, whilst mission was about people and what people do. Wright (2006) then concurs with Hendriks, clearly showing the relation between theology and mission in the following definition:

This places the development and practice of theology in the midst of the local faith community. The shift in the understanding and practising of theology started around 1952 at the Willingen Mission Conference with the ‘new’ understanding of mission. In this ‘new’ understanding of mission, mission is not primarily an activity of the local faith community, but rather an attribute of God as an understanding of the missio Dei. Bosch (1991:390) describes missio Dei as mission placed in context of the Trinity doctrine; not in the first place of ecclesiology or soteriology. The close relationship between the missio Dei and mission as solidarity with the incarnated and crucified Christ is important. If theology is about God and God is a missional God, theology is by nature missional. Theology is then about the Trinitarian God who wants to be known by all creation. He therefore reaches out as Father by sending his Son, Jesus Christ; the Father and the Son send the Holy Spirit, and the Father, Son and Holy Spirit send the church. If believers participate obediently in the missio Dei, the agent that needs to reach and equip African children for spiritual transformation⁸ must be the local faith community. This will only happen if the local faith community is understood as missional.

Bosch (1991:392) concludes with ‘there is mission because God loves people,’ and the church is privilege to participate actively and knowingly in this mission to make God known in the lives of those who experience and see his works every day, but does not recognise it. The basic presupposition of this article is that the identity of an individual as well as the identity of the church, is derived from God's very being (cf. Hendriks 2004:26). People are created in the image of God and the church is biblically described as the body of Christ. God reveals himself through humans as imago Dei. The ‘general revelation’ implies that the God of the Bible is a self-revealing God (Rm 1:19, 20).⁹ This passage, just as the rest of the Book of Romans, also reveals the need of all humans for salvation and (spiritual) transformation (Rm 12:1–2). The God of the Bible does not only reveal himself through people and the church, but also through nature (Ps 19:1–2). It is about this general revelation that Adeyemo (1997:11) states it clearly that there can be revelation without salvation, but no salvation without revelation. The following question is then asked (Adeyemo 1997:14): How much knowledge of the Trinitarian God as revealed in Scripture does the traditional people of Africa possess?

The God of the Bible reveals himself as a trinitarian God who is alive and different from the African understanding of a supreme being or any other god. Therefore, Christian theology is not only about God, the faith community and general revelation. It is also about specific revelation in Jesus Christ as the only Redeemer as well as discerning God's will at a specific time and place. Theology is about discerning between the gods and the spirits (1 Jn 4:1). For this discernment, the faith community needs the specific revelation of God through his Word, the Bible, and the incarnation of Jesus Christ.¹⁰ It is through the process of discernment that spiritual transformation takes place and believers are able to participate obediently in the missio Dei towards an anticipated future as eschatological reality. In this regard, theology becomes (trans)formative at all times and on all levels of society (cf. Hendriks 2004:27–34). The apostle Paul relates spiritual (trans)formation to the resurrection of Jesus Christ in three different ways: firstly, as a process of personal identification with the death and resurrection of Jesus; secondly, as the believer's submission to the all-encompassing reign of Jesus as Lord; and thirdly, the behaviour of believers from the perspective of the parousia, the future hope of the resurrection (cf. Thornhill 2012).

Christian anthropology¹⁶ wants to answer the question: What is a human being? In answering the question, Kelsy (2006:53) argues ‘What human beings are as God's creatures is not simply their empirically discoverable nature, but their character as an ontologically contingent gift.’ Generally anthropology can be described as the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space, and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture.¹⁷ It is important to look at a Christian anthropology of Africa's children, because the danger exists that the church can be more interested in the calling to transform Africa's children than in the children of Africa as ‘ontological contingent gift’. This often leads to a reductive understanding of what constitutes ‘relevant’ anthropological scholarship in the African context – narrowing it down to ‘issues’ such as poverty, development and the AIDS pandemic (cf. Becker 2012:19). It is also true that, in light of ‘political correctness’, anthropologists (and, it may be added, some theologians) may not want to write on cultural sensitive issues.¹⁸

As a theologian, Erickson (2001:164–165) draws the attention to different views of humanity. His insights may help to understand the different situations in which many of Africa's children find themselves. One perspective is where humans are viewed as machines and disposables. The interest of the ‘authority’ is then focused on the strength, energy, abilities and skills that a person possesses. When the same outcomes can be reached by other means, there will be no hesitation to adopt such measures. Many child soldiers in Africa may be viewed from this perspective. Another perspective views humans primarily as members of the animal kingdom. The only difference between animals and humans is then one of degree. Many (African) children who are captured in prostitution and human trafficking may be viewed and treated from this perspective in which positive and negative reinforcements are the means of control. Another view by a broader segment of especially traditional societies is that humans are pawns of the universe. The view contains that ‘humans are at the mercy of forces in the world which control their destiny, but have no real concern for them’ (Erickson 2001:165). Many African children and adults who hold to African traditionalism may view themselves as pawns of the universe, especially the spiritual world (cf. Oduro et al. 2008:20; Nurnberger 2007; Gehman 1999):

A Christian view on humanity (cf. Erickson 2001:165–166) is that people are all creatures of God, made in his image. Firstly, this implies that not one person is here by accident; everyone is here through a conscious, purposeful act of God. Secondly, the image of God, created within us, makes us different from animals. People are capable to respond to God as Creator and have a conscious, personal relationship with him. Migliore (2014:143) draws the attention to the fact that ‘… we are sinners who deny and distort our created being; and we are forgiven sinners, enabled by God's grace to begin life anew in faith’. Therefore, life is dynamic propelled forward.

Although there may be many differences between cultures, which are the study field of anthropology, the fact is that people, as human beings, are pretty much the same. All people have the same physical, social, psychological and spiritual needs irrespective of age, race or culture. It is also the biblical view that all people, including children and youth, are equal before God and need to be treated as such. It is in light of this understanding that we will give a religious, cultural perspective on African children.

Sub-Saharan Africa is loaded with multiple diversities, ranging from different religions to different cultures and cutting through linguistic diversities and historical differences. Aware of all of this, it is the general take of this article that most of Africa's youth and children are still being influenced by, and experiencing the deep-rooted African traditional believes to an extent. Ngong (2010:1) describes the African worldview as one where there is no firm distinction between the spiritual and physical world, as they are intricately intertwined. When one talks about reaching Africa's children, it must be seen in context. According to Nurnberger (2007:9) the children in West Africa must be understood within the traditional context of animism, where the emphasis is on personalised manifestations of power or spirits. In South and East Africa, children must be understood within the context of dynamism, where everything that exists harbours impersonal forces and where these forces drive everything that exists.¹⁹ The dynamistic power or forces are channelled in beneficial directions through rituals that are performed in public by authorised representatives of the community (Nurnberger 2007:22):

Crucial for an Africa child theology and spiritual transformation, is the attention Nurnberger (2007:22–24) draws to the importance of the community. Essential to his understanding of the community is the believe that dynamistic powers are located in material objects, natural processes, people, communities, roaming spirits, rituals, witches and others. Sociologically, the extended family, the clan, the chiefdom and the kingdom are all together the life force of the positive dynamistic power. The most essential deposit of power is located at the core of the community. As one approaches the periphery, the world becomes more dangerous. There are clear demarcations, which can be walls or fences (or be invisible), between the inside and the outside. These demarcations always have the force of ritual markings. There is no life outside the community and the dynamistic powers are used for either creating peace within the community or to drive someone out of the community. The protection of life is a communal task and the greatest danger lies in the possibility of extinction, which makes children very important. A person's entire life, though, is inherited from and therefore owed to one's parents. Therefore, in marriage, personal attraction is not always a decisive argument, because it is viewed as a linkage between clans, not individuals, and is often arranged by adults whilst partners are still young. Young people must marry and have children for their clans. Childlessness is viewed as a communal catastrophe more than a personal tragedy. Within the (extended) family, the role of every member is defined by age, gender and seniority, and no one is allowed to go beyond his or her particular spheres of competence. Children are viewed and treated as possessions and members of a community. With such a closely knit community, how can the local faith community equip children in Africa for spiritual transformation?

Within the missio Dei, it is the third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, who equips people for spiritual transformation and their calling in this world (cf. Jn 3:1–21; 14:16, 26; 16:5–15; Ac 2; Rm 8:1–16; Eph 4:1–16). Ngong (2010:1) indicates that Pentecostal pneumatology is usually presented as the best way for understanding the Holy Spirit within the African context. Pentecostal pneumatology fits well in the African worldview, because the felt needs of the African people are usually portrayed as overcoming the ‘evil’ spirits that might threaten their life. Although only the traditional perspective on African youth is discussed, it is noted that African youth are seriously engaged in theology, even though they might not be conscious of it. Theology is rampant amongst all people, because we must choose everyday between the gods that reveal themselves to us through electronic media, gods of good times, money, beauty and others.

Following Dean's argument (2001:29–30), Africa's youth will not be equipped for spiritual transformation by an intuitive theology that ‘feels’ right, but lacks structure or a grand narrative to hold it together. Neither will they be equipped by an embedded theology, which is viewed as a religious story and inherited from a faith community, which is not critically examined. What is needed is a deliberate theology or pneumatology, which is understood as faith, seeking understanding. Deliberate theology says, ‘I believe, because …’. In a deliberate theological understanding, the ‘why?’ question is answered in a rational way.

Seeing that children inquire about God (Dean 2001:31), the church must equip them with the grand narrative of the Bible, helping them to realise that the way in which God was involved in the lives of his people in the Bible, is the same way in which God is involved in their own lives today. The church will do even better if she equips the family to help children realise that they are part of the God story, including his covenant. On the other hand, youth, from adolescence, ‘inquire after God, seeking a relationship, a sacred trust, an anchor that remains steady in winds of change’ (Dean 2001:31). In this regard, the church must equip them with resources to discern God's will for their lives within the faith community and the world. Equipping is a teaching and discipleship process creating ‘spiritual engagement’ opportunities with the goal of transformation. Learning takes place when knowledge about opportunities is increased. Equipping then enables youth to open new doors and throw off old chains in order to stretch their lives towards a new future. It is in this regard that the faith community, as hermeneutical lebensraum and agogic society, opens a window on the new future participation in the missio Dei. Ngong (2010:3) confirms this view when he suggests that it is not sufficient for Africa to speak of the presence of the Spirit only in terms of anti-rational or non-rational discourses, but that we will find the Spirit at work in rational discourses, referring to John 16:4b–15. The Spirit cannot be limited to the African worldview when he is in Africa. The Spirit must be known as the third Person of the Trinity and not only in a functional way, which dominates African understanding. The trinitarian God must be trusted to unleash his Spirit in Africa in surprising ways through the wonderful gifts he gave to Africa in persons, culture, language, history, wisdom and many others; indeed, 1 Corinthians 1:4–9 is also true of Africa.

Given that Africa hosts one of the world's youngest populations (70% of the population was younger than 30 years of age in 2010; International Year of Youth 2010–2011, 2010:1), children and youth should be at the centre of every theological, political and socio-economical discussion, taking in consideration their culture and worldviews. Children and youth are not the Africa of tomorrow; they are the Africa of today.

Within the African context, which is traditional, modern and postmodern, it might be true that one of the greatest defects of children and youth ministry is the absence of a sound theological foundation. In traditional societies like in Africa, with its fundamentalism in the African Traditional Religion (cf. Sakuba 2008), catechesis or Sunday school may be practiced as an authoritarian and often one-sided teaching (cf. Nel 2000:8–9). This might be the major or only subject for children and youth ministry, with the goal of church membership²⁰ and not spiritual transformation. It must thus be remembered that spiritual information is an activity of the Spirit himself and it must be taught and lived in dependence on the Spirit, because spiritual information is part of the formative process and not the end result. Being (trans)formed into the image of Christ is not only about receiving information (like in a textbook), but is also about discipleship, which is primarily formative. Spiritual (trans)formation is rather caught than taught. Spiritual information and formation are especially important in view of the growing secularism in Africa, and the fact that children have become part of the economy of Africa through human trafficking, tribal wars and slavery.

Secularism in Africa may be viewed as an alternative religion, which is increasingly shaping the fundamental characteristics of African societies, especially the lives of young people and children (cf. Van der Walt 2008:21). The struggle from a secularist postmodern view is primarily the loss of the communal story of all people, which is formulated in the Africa Ubuntu principle. Together with it, people experience the loss of the grand narrative as it is told in the Bible, and the biblical language is lost with the story. Arthur (2007:22–25) shows that the language, which we use to articulate theological ideas, got a new meaning in a postmodern era. For example, an ‘idol’ today is a ‘pop star’ that sings and no longer has the meaning of a false god, whilst in the sub-cultures of the youth, many singers have become false gods who are worshipped. A second struggle of postmodernism is the failure of imagination regarding both the claims and demands of the gospel, and the focus on the self. According to Arthur (2007), the main values of such a belief system are the following:

In reaching the children of Africa for spiritual transformation, the church must reclaim her salvation story as part of the living grand narrative of God, looking for opportunities to ‘nurture the imaginations of youth that they may have the “ears to hear” and the vision to live by the real-life gospel of Jesus Christ’ (Arthur 2007:29). When an active imagination is not transformed by the gospel and guided by the Spirit, it is prone to sin.

Spiritual transformation is the work of God; more specifically, it is the work of the third Person of the Trinity, namely the Holy Spirit. The church must confess that she has no power to transform people. Spiritual transformation with the purpose to glorify the living God as he reveals himself in the Bible, is the purpose of the missio Dei and the church has the privilege to participate in this mission. As participant, the church must have a clear theological vision and mission of its youth ministry. What is the role of the church in her participation in the missio Dei regarding spiritual formation and transformation? As argued above, the role of the church in spiritual transformation is a hermeneutical one and therefore, she needs spiritually healthy leaders. ‘Doing God's work isn’t as important as being God's person’ (Fields 1998:36). Although relationships are very important, it cannot be the primary foundation of our youth ministry; the story of Jesus Christ is the primary foundation in spiritual (trans)formation. He gave his life in order for people to be transformed.

A single desire in reaching and equipping Africa's children is their spiritual transformation. Those seeking spiritual transformation may not forget that behind transformation are attitudes, culture and values (DeVries 2008:75). In Africa, spiritual transformation is not only the changing of a belief system, but also the leaving of a social structure. Spiritual transformation in the sense of conformed to the image of Christ means shaping one's life after his life. Thus, spiritual (trans)formation must not be confused with a formula in which methods of strategic programmes, designed by experts from afar, are adopted. ‘Transformation doesn’t happen primarily because specific tasks got accomplished or because of consistently excellent programs. Transformation becomes habitual for youth ministry when a unique climate of transformation is established’ (DeVries 2008:77) and where the Spirit is at work. Transformation would involve learning, unlearning, relearning and new learning. These outcomes may manifest themselves in changes of cognitions, feelings and behaviour. The climate for transformation can be compared to a greenhouse in which the climate is set for growth. It will be the ideal if this ‘greenhouse’ is the family, but in Africa, with its many disrupted families, it is mostly the role of the faith community as an extended family and agogic community that creates the climate for change. Such a ‘greenhouse’ effect is created when the faith community participates in the missio Dei obediently, discerning God's will together, listening to the Word and the children and youth as well as the world (in this instance Africa) (cf. Hendriks 2004:30–32). Equipping youth for spiritual transformation is a collaborative process between those who reach out and the receivers. It is not something that those who reach out ‘do to’ the children or youth; it is a prophetic dialogical process to create real transformation. The agenda of the children must be part of the agenda of the church. Within the context of care, Egan (1990) makes the following applicable remark:

Real transformation happens when a person (child) addresses difficult situations in life as opportunities to live out his or her faith. Children and youth ministry, in many instances, lead to perceived transformation where a person (child) enjoys participating in church activities, but a new-founded faith does not play a role in real-life situations.

The goal of spiritual transformation is not to ‘solve’ everything. Spiritual transformation is effective to the degree that African children and youth, through spiritual interactions with the living God of the Bible, are in a better position to manage their life situations through participating in the use of spiritual resources and opportunities (the Bible and faith community) to live their lives more effectively.