The Tetragrammaton has great significance in Judaism and Christianity. Hebraist George Howard has proposed a theory of New Testament documentary origins. On the basis of early Septuagint/Old Greek (LXX/OG) manuscript findings, Howard has suggested that the Tetragrammaton has played a part in the transmission history of the New Testament. The New Testament writers, according to Howard, would have retained the Tetragrammaton in their Old Testament citations. With the success of the Gentile mission, uninformed copyists replaced the Tetragrammaton with the Greek word κύριος [Lord]. The result was that passages that applied only to YHWH were now applied in error to both the Lord God and the Lord Jesus Christ so that the high Christology of the New Testament was, in part, artificially elevated through scribal corruption. A detailed response is in order to evaluate the validity of Howard’s thesis. As a test case, the LXX/OG quotation from Joel 2:32 (3:5) in Romans 10:13 is examined to determine the proper referent of the linked word
In 1977, George Howard published a theory which has exerted some influence in the areas of New Testament and Septuagint (LXX) studies (e.g. Howard
In Romans 10:13, Paul quotes from Joel 2:32 (3:5 in Hebrew) in his treatment of Israel and the gospel. The quotation is the same as that found in Acts 2:21: ‘everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved’ (πᾶς … ὃς ἂν ἐπικαλέσηται τὸ ὂνομα κυρίου σωθήσεται [Rm 10:13 – English Standard Version (ESV);
In response to this, my task is twofold: First, to determine which reading has the greatest claim to authenticity; and second, to enquire about the Christological implications of this determination. On the basis of the conclusions reached, the last part of the study will examine two Divine Name Bibles and evaluate the suitability of using the Tetragrammaton in Romans 10:13.
The manuscripts of the letter to the Romans are unanimous in support of the authenticity of κυρίου in Romans 10:13. There is no manuscript support for the Tetragrammaton here. Howard (
A detailed examination of the immediate context and the internal constraints of the passage will determine the identity of the ‘Lord’ in Romans 10:13 and the suitability of each reading.
Romans 10:13 is situated in the wider section of Romans 9–11, dealing with Israel and the salvation that comes through the gospel of Christ. Paul contrasts the righteousness that is through the works of the law with the righteousness that comes by faith. Paul raises the question:
What shall we say, then? That Gentiles who did not pursue righteousness have attained it, that is, a righteousness that is by faith; but that Israel who pursued a law that would lead to righteousness did not succeed in reaching that law. (Rm 9:30–31 – ESV)
Paul then answers his own question about Israel’s failure: ‘Why? Because they did not pursue it by faith, but as if it were based on works’ (Rm 9:32 – ESV). In a composite quotation from Isaiah (28:16; 8:14), Paul locates the heart of the problem for the Jews: ‘Behold, I am laying in Zion a stone of stumbling, and a rock of offense; and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame’ (ἰδοὺ τίθημι ἐν Σιὼν λίθον προσκόμματος καὶ πέτραν σκανδάλου, καὶ ὁ πιστεύων ἐπʼ αὐτῷ οὐ καταισχυνθήσεται [Rm 9:33 – ESV; NA28]).
What or who is this ‘stumbling stone’? (τῷ λίθῳ τοῦ προσκόμματος [Rm 9:32 – ESV; NA28]). In all likelihood, the stumbling stone is Jesus Christ. Paul uses similar language in 1 Corinthians 1:23 in referring to Christ: ‘… we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block (σκάνδαλον) to Jews’ (1 Cor 1:23 – ESV; NA28). The concept
The Christological import of referring to Christ as a ‘stumbling stone’ is evident when looking at the wider context of Isaiah 8:14, the second of the merged passages in Romans 9:33. In Isaiah 8:14, the stone imagery is used of YHWH:
And he will become a sanctuary and a stone of offense and a rock of stumbling to both houses of Israel, a trap and a snare to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. (Is 8:14 – ESV)
The LXX rendering brings out the contrast between the two uses of the stone:
And if you trust in him, he will become a sanctuary for you, and you will not encounter him as an obstacle of stone (λίθου προσκόμματι) or like a fall from a rock. But the houses of Jacob are in a snare, and those who sit in Jerusalem are in a pit. (Is 8:14 – Lexham English LXX; Göttingen LXX)
If Paul intersects YHWH and Jesus in the ‘stumbling stone’ of Isaiah 8:14, the implications for Paul’s Christology are clear: ‘At the level of exegesis [
The section in Romans 10:1–13 is a unit with bookends on the subject of ‘salvation’. Paul’s desire for his fellow countrymen is for their ‘salvation’ (σωτηρίαν [Rm 10:1 – NA28]). At the other end of the section, Paul concludes with his quote from Joel 2:32 (3:5): ‘everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved’ (πᾶς … ὃς ἂν ἐπικαλέσηται τὸ ὂνομα κυρίου σωθήσεται [Rm 10:13 – ESV; NA28]). This emphasis on salvation is picked up in Romans 10:9: ‘if you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved’ (σωθήσῃ [ESV; NA28]). Again in the next verse (Rm 10:10), salvation is the common element: ‘for with the heart a person believes, resulting in righteousness, and with the mouth he confesses, resulting in salvation’ (σωτηρίαν – New American Standard Bible [NASV]; NA28). Salvation is the thread that weaves through this section and finds its climax in the quote from Joel 2:32 (3:5).
Paul continues to contrast
No heroic feats are required to secure the righteousness that comes through faith in Jesus Christ: ‘“The word is near you, in your mouth and in your heart” (that is, the word of faith that we proclaim)’ (Rm 10:8 – ESV). Jesus, the ‘stumbling stone’, is the object of saving faith, and the Jews are derelict in their unbelief. The righteousness that is based on the law is rooted in human effort, and this has never been the equal of faith in God’s plan of salvation in the Old and New Testaments.
Paul continues his exposition of the nearness of the word of faith, which is the gospel message that has been preached by the Early Church. The heart of what is involved in receiving the gospel is summarised in Romans 10:9: ‘because, if you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved’ (ὅτι ἐὰν ὁμολογήσῃς ἐν τῷ στόματί σου κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ πιστεύσῃς ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ σου ὅτι ὁ θεὸς αὐτὸν ἤγειρεν ἐκ νεκρῶν, σωθήσῃ [ESV; NA28]). Here Paul is explaining how the word of faith is accessible to the listener. In this way, the ὅτι is taken as causal (‘because’) in describing how the gospel is ‘near’ – involving a basic and effectual response. In contrast to this, the New International Version (NIV) and NASV translate the conjunction with ‘that’. The passage in Romans 10:9 is viewed thus as the content of the ‘word of faith’. It is probably better to translate the ὅτι as causal to avoid having two content clauses in a row: ‘that is, the word of faith which we are preaching, that if you confess with your mouth …’ (NASV; Moo
At the heart of the early preaching and its response in personal acceptance is the confession that ‘Jesus is Lord’ (κύριον Ἰησοῦν [Rm 10:9 – ESV; NA28]). In Greek Paul makes use of a double accusative (see Blass & Debrunner
Therefore I want you to understand that no one speaking in the Spirit of God ever says ‘Jesus is accursed!’ and no one can say ‘Jesus is Lord’ (Κύριος Ἰησοῦς) except in the Holy Spirit. (1 Cor 12:3 – ESV; NA28)
In Philippians 2:11, a longer form of this confession is used: ‘every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord’ (ESV). In Codex Vaticanus (B), the creedal nature of the confession in Romans 10:9 is made more explicit with its reading: ἐὰν ὁμολογήσῃς τό ῥημα ἐν τῷ στόματί σου ὁτι κύριος Ἰησοῦς (‘if you confess with your mouth the word “Jesus is Lord”’ [Strazicich
The confession ‘Jesus is Lord’ is a key distinctive of the faith and practice of earliest Christianity. Dunn (
What follows in the next verses is a series of statements – each introduced with an explanatory γάρ [for]. There is an increasing momentum to the passage, and Rowe (
The use of γάρ five times within 10:10–13 not only connects the phrases to each other, but also gives the reader a sense of being pulled or drawn toward some expected end, with the subsequent phrase each time motivating the preceding phrase:
Romans 10:13 is the climax of the section from 9:30 to 10:13, and the connected statements all have some (accumulating) bearing on deciding the referent of ‘Lord’ (κυρίου) in verse 13 and any significance that can be drawn from this assignment. I will examine each statement in order to determine the cumulative contextual effect on the Joel 2:32 (3:5) quotation.
The
Chiasm Romans 10:9–10
Segment | Greek | English |
---|---|---|
A | ὁμολογήσῃς (10:9) | confess: mouth |
B | πιστεύσῃς (10:9) | believe: heart |
B’ | πιστεύεται (10:10) | believe: heart |
A’ | ὁμολογεῖται (10:10) | confess: mouth |
The quotation from Isaiah 28:16 in Romans 10:11 is introduced by the
In conjunction with the salvation theme that runs through Romans 9:30–10:13, there is a continued widening of effect that Paul achieves with his addition of πᾶς to the quote from Isaiah 28:16, together with other all-encompassing statements. In Romans 10:4, Paul includes everyone in the offer of salvation: ‘For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone who believes’ (τέλος γὰρ νόμου Χριστὸς εἰς δικαιοσύνην παντὶ τῷ πιστεύοντι [ESV; NA28]). Paul uses inclusive statements about the breadth of salvation right from his programmatic start in Romans 1:16: ‘For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes (εἰς σωτηρίαν παντὶ τῷ πιστεύοντι), to the Jew first and also to the Greek’ (ESV; NA28). Paul’s generalised statement in Romans 10:10 continues to emphasise the wide scope of salvation’s recipients: ‘for with the heart
The
Paul picks up the topic of the universality of salvation as a solution to universal sinfulness: ‘For there is no distinction (διαστολή): for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God’ (Rm 3:22 – ESV; NA28). Just as there is no ‘distinction’ in that both Jew and Gentile are under the curse of sin, so all who believe are joined without ‘distinction’ under the same Lord who mediates God’s salvation. From the beginning of Romans, Paul includes both Jews and Gentiles in the scope of salvation. Already in his thesis statement in Romans 1:16, Paul makes it clear that the gospel has universal application.
The
[
The supreme claim that Jesus is ‘Lord of all’ is something that Jews would have used without reservation only in reference to the God of Israel – the bold usage here has significant Christological implications. In Acts 10:36 Jesus is also referred to as ‘Lord of all’ (οὗτός ἐστιν πάντων κύριος [ESV; NA28]). Dunn (
The language of referring to Jesus as the ‘same (Lord)’ is also found in 1 Corinthians 12:4–6 in connection with the Father, Son and Holy Spirit:
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but the same Lord (ὁ αὐτὸς κύριος); and there are varieties of activities, but it is the same God who empowers them all in everyone. (ESV; NA28)
The plurality of different people like different ministries is subsumed under the Lordship of the One Lord.
In this context in Romans 10, the riches that Jesus bestows are likely the benefits of salvation. The context constrains the range of possible options for the statement: ‘bestowing his riches on all who call on him’ (πλουτῶν εἰς πάντας τοὺς ἐπικαλουμένους αὐτόν [Rm 10:12 – ESV; NA28]). What precedes and what follows make it clear that Jesus’ riches are bound up with eschatological salvation. Universal salvation through the One Lord is what Paul brings to this context in the preceding verses, and the text in the following verse only secures this understanding: ‘For “everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved”’ (Rm 10:13 – ESV).
Paul often uses the language of wealth to convey the abundant resources of God and of Christ (e.g. Rm 2:4; 9:23; 11:33; 1 Cor 1:5; 2 Cor 8:9; Eph 1:7; 2:7; 3:8,16; Phlp 4:19; Col 1:27; Moo
In anticipation of the climax of the rhetorical argument in Romans 10:13, Paul makes use of the significant verb from Joel 2:32 (3:5) ‘calling upon’ (ἐπικαλουμένους) in Romans 10:12b (‘bestowing his riches on all who call on him’ [πλουτῶν εἰς πάντας τοὺς ἐπικαλουμένους αὐτόν (ESV; NA28)]). Anyone familiar with the Old Testament would almost certainly pick up on the allusion to the repeated phrase ‘call on the name of the Lord’ used throughout the Old Testament and most significantly in Joel 2:32 (3:5): ‘everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved’. This reference to Joel 2:32 (3:5) prepares the reader for the final explanatory γάρ that introduces the direct quote from Joel. This verbal link makes a connection between Romans 10:12 and 13, and only serves to strengthen the unity of this passage.
The final statement in Romans 10:13 brings Paul’s argument about the righteousness that comes by faith in Christ Jesus to a proper culmination. The final quotation from Joel 2:32 (3:5), prefaced with
The research above shows that Paul interprets Isaiah 28:16 christologically and uses the shame motif to contrast the riches of salvation. Paul emphasises the universal aspect of the salvation available through Christ with the repeated use of πᾶς. Paul started in Romans 1:16 (παντί) with an inclusive statement about salvation; he repeats it in 10:4 (παντί), and continues this broad scope of salvation with the same word in verses 11 (πᾶς), 12 (πάντων, πάντας) and 13 (πᾶς). The addition of πᾶς in the Isaiah 28:16 quote in Romans 10:11 prepared the way for the universal scope of the scriptural support of Joel 2:32 (3:5).
Perhaps the most shocking conclusion that Paul draws, is the identification of Jesus with the Divine Name of YHWH through the κύριος predicate.
If there is any doubt that the κυρίου of Romans 10:13 finds its referent in the Jesus of the immediate context, the following verses (14ff.) further help to dispel confusion. Paul poses a series of questions that points back to the preceding text:
How then will they call on him in whom they have not believed (ἐπικαλέσωνται εἰς ὃν οὐκ ἐπίστευσαν)? And how are they to believe in him of whom they have never heard? (Rm 10:14 – ESV; NA28)
The verb ἐπικαλέσωνται mirrors the same verb in Romans 10:13, and ἐπίστευσαν joins the passage with the dialogue about belief in verse 9ff. The relative pronoun ὃν can only refer back to Romans 10:13 and its referent, Jesus, the Lord. In Romans 10:18, Paul answers the question about Israel not hearing: ‘But I ask, have they not heard? Indeed they have, for “Their voice has gone out to all the earth, and their words to the ends of the world”’ (ESV). What is the message that has been heard? It is the ‘word of Christ’ (ῥήματος Χριστοῦ [Rm 10:17 – NA28]). This leaves little doubt that the message about Christ had been preached, and the Jews (and Gentiles) have had ample opportunity to receive the message.
In the end, it is Paul’s own argument in Romans 9:30ff that leads to the conclusion that the referent of ‘Lord’ in 10:13 is Jesus. This assignment carries great Christological weight. Paul finds a climax for his argument about the salvation of Jews and Gentiles in a passage that, in Hebrew, contains the Tetragrammaton and through the κύριος predicate associates the ineffable Name with Jesus.
To suggest as Howard (
Captured in Romans 10:13 is the climax of Paul’s elevated Christology. In this verse comes the intersection of Old and New Testaments in the invocation of the Divine κύριος resulting in salvation for all. Jesus is the centre of saving faith; he is the ‘stumbling stone’ to the Jews, a role that YHWH has played in the history of Israel. Jesus is ‘Lord’ and this confession is essential in the story of salvation, forming a vital link with his resurrection. From his position of glory, Jesus unites Jew and Gentile as the ‘Lord of all’ who delivers from eschatological shame and bestows the riches of salvation on whoever calls to/on him. It is noteworthy that Jesus himself is called on for salvation, and the use of pronouns makes it clear that he generously gives the gift of salvation from his supply. To invoke the name of the Lord is to invoke the name of YHWH, and only Jesus rightly assumes this role. Paul may not have used the language of the propositional theologian in claiming ‘Jesus is YHWH’, but this conclusion is accomplished in his reasoning: ‘His theological medium is instead that of overlap and resonance, such that he creates the overlapping conceptual space wherein this resonating identification occurs’ (Rowe
I have chosen to examine two Divine Name Bibles that claim to restore the Tetragrammaton to the New Testament text of Romans 10:13: The
‘For “everyone who calls on the name of Jehovah will be saved”’ (NWT).
‘For “everyone who calls on the Name of יהוה shall be saved”’ (TS).
The only real difference between the two translations involves the language in which the Tetragrammaton is rendered.
In both cases, the reader is alerted to the referenced text in its ‘original’ form, and the significance of the Old Testament citation is brought to the foreground. What is less clear is the import to Paul’s argument and the final form of the text as we have received it.
In the NWT, the referent to the argument changes from Romans 10:9–10 to 10:11–13. The flow of the argument is interrupted with a paragraph break beginning at Romans 10:11. The result is that Jehovah in distinction to Jesus is the referent of the paragraph in Romans 10:11ff. The difficulty is in the Greek text. The series of five connected statements each introduced with an explanatory (γάρ) is interrupted with the paragraph break:
Futhermore, the sequence of occurrences of ‘Lord’ (κύριος) and related pronouns which in the Greek find their antecedent in Jesus (Rm 10:9) is also severed:
In the Greek text, there is a line of thought that runs straight from the acclamation ‘Jesus is Lord’ (Rm 10:9) to the final ‘Lord’ of Joel 2:32 (3:5) through a sequence of κύριος statements linked with sequential γάρ conjunctions and related third person pronouns (αὐτόν [v. 9], ἐπʼ αὐτῷ [v. 11], ὁ αὐτὸς κύριος [v. 12a], and αὐτόν [v. 12b]). This sequence is violated with the NWT paragraph break at Romans 10:11. If we combine the collective documentary evidence of the extant manuscript corpus with the structural connections in this passage, the evidence is overwhelming that Paul intended to use the κύριος predicate in reference to Jesus Christ in Romans 10:13. To break the connection between Romans 10:9–10 from what follows, finds little support in the context and unnecessarily diverts the flow of Paul’s continuing argument.
The NWT Greek Interlinear adds a footnote to support the decision to use ‘Jehovah’ in Romans 10:13. The footnote cites ‘J7,8,10,13–18,22–24’ in support of the rendering ‘Jehovah’ and אAB in support of ‘Lord’. The series of ‘J’ versions are mostly modern Hebrew versions of the New Testament or some part thereof.
J Versions (NWT).
J Version | Author | Language | Publishing year |
---|---|---|---|
J7 | Hutter | Hebrew | 1599–1600 |
J8 | Robertson | Hebrew | 1661 |
J10 | Caddick | Hebrew | 1798–1805 |
J13 | McCaul, Alexander, Reichardt, Hoga | Hebrew | 1838 |
J14 | Reichardt | Hebrew | 1846 |
J15 | Biesenthal | Hebrew | 1851–1867 |
J16 | Reichardt, Biesenthal | Hebrew | 1866 |
J17 | Delitzsch | Hebrew | 1877–1892 |
J18 | Salkinson, Ginsburg | Hebrew | 1886 |
J22 | United Bible Societies | Hebrew | 1976 |
J23 | Bauchet, Kinneret (Arteaga) | Hebrew | 1975 |
J24 | Heinfetter | English | 1863 |
For the untrained, the presence of three witnesses to the word ‘Lord’ and 12 to ‘Jehovah’ appears decisive. However, some method of weighing is in order. The J versions are all very late translations of the Greek New Testament or a translation language from Greek (e.g. Latin, Syriac, etc.). All are directly or indirectly dependent on the Greek text. There are no extant Greek New Testament manuscripts that contain the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew or Greek characters, and the multiplication of late Hebrew versions carries little weight. The Greek corpus of New Testament manuscripts and all early versions fail to yield an original New Testament Tetragrammaton, and the J versions offer little extra. Elsewhere, Howard (
What we have is the interpretive decision to substitute the Tetragrammaton where the translator deems the underlying Old Testament quotation or allusion to contain the Divine Name or where the Tetragrammaton is contextually supported. It is this exegetical decision to replace the New Testament quotation or allusion from the Old Testament with the wording of the Hebrew quotation that is potentially problematic. There were reasons that the New Testament author chose the wording he did, and the Greek preserves the author’s intention. To revert to the Hebrew wording in some places, obscures or redirects the meaning of the New Testament author’s intended meaning.
In Romans 10:13, Paul is certainly applying the Tetragrammaton through the κύριος predicate to Jesus in the interlinked YHWH quotation, but to suggest to the English reader that the Tetragrammaton is what Paul originally penned, is unfounded. The NWT changes the referent from Jesus to Jehovah with the paragraph break in Romans 10:11 and the reference to Jehovah in verse 13. The footnote supporting the ‘Jehovah’ translation is confusing, since the J versions are of little or no text-critical value.
I suggest that, in the next edition of the NWT, the editors remove the paragraph break at Romans 10:11. In both the NWT and TS, the danger is that the reader will be diverted from what is clear in the Greek. Romans 10:13 forms a climax to the previous verses, especially Romans 10:9ff. The ‘restoration’ of the Tetragrammaton leads away from the author’s closely woven argument flowing into the Joel quotation. I advocate retaining the English word
In the New Living Translation, the translators have used a helpful convention to show where there is an underlying Tetragrammaton in an Old Testament quotation cited in the New Testament. In Romans 10:13, κύριος is rendered with the English word
An original Tetragrammaton lacks documentary and contextual support in Romans 10:13. However, the application of a Divine Name passage to Jesus through the κύριος predicate has great significance. The high honours ascribed to Jesus were not the product of later scribal corruption, but form an integral part of Paul’s argument. Jesus is ‘Lord’ in the highest sense possible, and his connection to the Divine Name in Romans 10:13 is unmistakable. Jesus offers eternal salvation to all who call upon his name, a prerogative of YHWH alone, yet applied without reservation to the incarnate Lord.
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
A.T.S wrote the article; S.T.R and F.J.v.R served in an editorial capacity.
This article followed all ethical standards for carrying out research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.
The following are taken from the textual symbols listing in the New World Translation (NWT) Greek Interlinear (pp. 13–14) and collated against the fuller references in the NWT Study Edition, ‘C4: Translations and Reference Works Supporting the Use of the Divine Name in the “New Testament”’ (JW.ORG,
J Versions
J Version | Listing |
---|---|
J7: | |
J8: | תורת יהוה חדשה, |
J10: | |
J13: | ספר ברית חדשה על פי המשיח (New Testament, in Hebrew), by Alexander McCaul, Michael Solomon Alexander, Johann Christian Reichardt, and Stanislaus Hoga, London, 1838. |
J14: | ספר ברית חדשה על פי המשיח(New Testament, in Hebrew), by Johann Christian Reichardt, London, 1846. |
J15: | ספר בשורה טובה על פי המבשר לוקס (Gospel of Luke, in Hebrew), by Johann Heinrich Raphael Biesenthal, Berlin, 1851. |
J16: | הברית החדשה על פי המשיח עם נקודות וטעמים (New Testament, in Hebrew), revised by Johann Christian Reichardt and Johann Heinrich Raphael Biesenthal, London, 1866. |
J17: | ספרי הברית החדשה (New Testament, in Hebrew), by Franz Delitzsch, Leipzig, 1877–1892. |
J18: | הברית החדשה (New Testament, in Hebrew), by Isaac Salkinson and Christian D. Ginsburg, Vienna, Austria, 1886. |
J22: | ספרי הברית החדשה (New Testament, in Hebrew), by United Bible Societies, Jerusalem, 1976. |
J23: | הברית החדשה (New Testament, in Hebrew), by Yohanan Bauchet and David Kinneret (Arteaga), Rome, 1975. |
J24: | |
J13: | הברית החדשה (New Testament, The Gospels in Hebrew), by Thomas Yeates, London, 1805. As reproduced by Jean Carmignac in |
J14: | ספר ברית חדשה על פי המשיח (New Testament, in Hebrew), by Alexander McCaul, Michael Solomon Alexander, Johann Christian Reichardt, and Stanislaus Hoga, London, 1838. |
, New World Translation Study Edition.
The Anchor Bible Dictionary (ABD) (Freedman, Herion, Graf et al.
Howard examines the following manuscripts: P. Rylands Gk. 458, P. Fouad Inv. 266, 8ḤevXIIgr, and pap4QLXXLevb. A fuller examination of these manuscripts and the textual traditions that informed the New Testament can be found in Span (
Although Jesus is referred to as God in places in the New Testament, it is exceptional usage, and the customary referent of the term
Howard (
‘To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ, who is
To the Hellenistic Jew, the significance of Paul’s use of the familiar Old Testament phrase ‘call on the name of the Lord’, with κύριος as the