The evolution of student counselling in South Africa parallels that of the United States and Europe, while also exhibiting distinct local characteristics. Student counselling in South Africa stemmed from vocational guidance and counselling. The origins of vocational assistance and counselling in South Africa trace back to the 1930s, coinciding with the Great Depression. The National Institute was founded to assist individuals in securing work. The inaugural documented student counselling programme was the Student Advisory programme at the University of Natal in Pietermaritzburg in 1948. This counselling service focuses on career guidance and curriculum selection for students. Subsequently, the University of Pretoria established the Student Counselling Committee in 1951 and the Student Counselling Bureau in 1957 (Dovey 1983; Sinclair 2019:64, citing Maree & Van der Westhuizen 2011). The University of Pretoria’s introduction of a counselling bureau prompted other South African universities to implement analogous programmes. The programme expanded nationally in the 1950s and 1960s, especially inside traditionally white institutions, where student counselling was regarded as a crucial approach to mitigate academic underachievement (Naidoo & Cartwright 2018:4). In 1967, the principals’ group recommended the establishment of student advisory services at all predominantly white universities. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, some institutions instituted career offices to provide broad information regarding careers and employment opportunities (Sinclair 2019:64). In 1972, educators joined the counselling team, facilitating the service’s expansion to the Durban campus. In 1985, the Student Advisory Service was renamed the Student Counselling Center (Naidoo Cartwright 2017:4, citing Joubert 1988). Over the years, South African SCSs have been shaped by the wider socio-political landscape of higher education. The post-1994 constitutional framework conferred upon all students the formal right to enrol in any university and access its services; however, the legacy of apartheid’s racial oppression and discrimination has engendered enduring political, socio-economic, and educational disparities that obstruct equitable access to the substantive benefits of higher education. These obstacles function through many known ways. The pathway to higher education is significantly inequitable. The racial categorisation from the apartheid period in educational institutions persists in affecting their resources and results: as of 2014, 87% of former white schools had a library, while just 35% of former black schools had one, with similar disparities in teacher qualifications and class sizes (Spaull & Pretorius 2019). Gruijters, Elbers and Reddy (2024) demonstrate persistent post-apartheid educational segregation influenced by racial and socio-economic characteristics, whereby the elite’s control of high-performing schools sustains racial and class privileges. The Council on Higher Education reports that the graduation rates of white students exceed those of black African students by an average of 50%, with less than 5% of African and coloured teenagers attaining success in higher education (Dhunpath & Subbaye 2018). Secondly, formal access depends on financial access. The 2015–2016 #FeesMustFall movement underscored the mismatch between the entitlement to register and the financial ability to afford the registration cost (Mtshweni 2022). The National Student Financial Aid Scheme excludes students from the missing middle households with incomes ranging from R350 000 to R600 000, designating them as too wealthy for government support while still being unable to afford tuition fees (Garrod & Wildschut 2021). National Student Financial Aid Scheme has imposed more exclusions owing to delayed payments and the mid-year defunding of 5000 students in 2020 (IOL News 2020). Ten years after the original demonstrations, expensive registration deposits continue to serve as obstacles for universities such as Walter Sisulu University, Nelson Mandela University, and the University of Cape Town (Mail & Guardian 2025).

The higher education system is functionally categorised into four tiers: (1) historically white institutions (HWIs); (2) historically disadvantaged institutions; (3) universities of technology; and (4) a distance learning university. What is more resourced than historically black institutions that continue to struggle to meet basic facility standards (Bantjes et al. 2023; Bozalek & Boughey 2012). This assesses the institutions available to black students and the provision of SSS, including counselling, at those institutions. These inequalities are seen in the patterns of mental health prevalence and treatment utilisation, which is most relevant to SCSs. Bantjes et al.’s (2022) nationwide research of South African university students indicated that the incidence of prevalent mental disorders was consistently the highest in HWIs, with black students at HWIs demonstrating a greater prevalence than their peers. Bantjes et al. (2023) performed a nationwide survey of first-year students, indicating that merely 28.9% of individuals with existing mental disorders accessed mental health services in the past year, despite the provision of complimentary on-campus resources, with significant disparities observed based on race and type of institution. The cultural contradiction between Western secular counselling frameworks and the perspectives of black African students, which the pastoral-counselling approach of this article seeks to address, remains a significant post-apartheid barrier to meaningful access. Contemporary SCSs aim to address diverse inequities and trauma-related issues. Consequently, SCSs advocate for a social justice framework, impacting students’ academic performance, mental health, and post-graduate employment opportunities (Naidoo & Cartwright 2018:2–3, citing Naidoo 2016; Naidoo & Cartwright 2018).

Student counselling services are a fundamental element of SSS. These services are characterised as collaborative entities and departments that work together to deliver counselling and healthcare services to students. They are speciality services incorporated within the educational framework. In academic environments, SSS assist learners in surmounting educational obstacles through specialised assistance and tactics (Makibinyane & Khumalo 2021:400). These services offer essential help that enables students to effectively manage personal issues. Cilliers et al. (2010:48) assert that SCSs are vital as they primarily include psychotherapy interventions, crisis assistance, drug addiction counselling, career guidance, and skills workshops. Moreover, counselling services are essential for fostering students’ autonomy. These services assist students in understanding their decision-making processes and cultivating self-awareness regarding the consequences. The counselling services cater to students’ varied requirements, encompassing psychological, intellectual, social, and personal development (Adu 2022:542). Additionally, SCSs assist students in managing emotions and confronting obstacles that hinder their academic achievement, such as worry and stress (Dilag 2022:3). Nevertheless, individuals often overlook that stress can manifest in various dimensions. Mason (2017:138) asserts that spirituality may act as a stressor for some individuals. This indicates that SCSs ought to assist students in examining and addressing spiritual challenges. This will assist in accommodating students’ varied spiritual journeys. The seven functions of pastoral care examined in this article – healing, maintaining, directing, reconciling, nurturing, empowering, and liberating – exhibit a multifaceted intellectual heritage. Clebsch and Jaekle (eds. 1994) established the conventional fourfold typology of healing, sustaining, leading, and reconciling; Clinebell (1966) added nurturing and Lartey (2013) introduced the explicitly liberative and empowering characteristics, reflecting the postcolonial transition in pastoral theology. Louw (2012) has synthesised and advanced this typology within the South African and African context through a cura animarum and wholeness in hope care paradigm, which anchors the seven functions in a theological anthropology of human dignity and divine compassion. This page focuses on the synthesis itself, rather than its particular downstream applications (e.g. Okoye & Okoye 2022). At present, SCSs face the challenge of addressing several injustices, including racism, sexism, classism, and trauma-related concerns. These programmes aim to promote social justice, acknowledging the impact of social injustice on students’ academic, psychological, and professional growth (Naidoo & Cartwright 2018:2). This underscores the significance of SCSs, which possess a wide-ranging breadth, considerable influence, and inclusive skills. It establishes student counselling as essential for promoting comprehensive student development. To adopt a more comprehensive approach, SCSs should also fulfil a spiritual function. Consequently, pastoral therapy must be differentiated from other mental health therapies. From a theological tradition standpoint, the notion of caring is associated with cura animarum. This theological endeavour centres on shepherding; it actively engages persons without awaiting their request for a meeting. It seeks individuals and addresses their needs while concurrently engaging with them in their current situations (Louw 2012:4). cura animarum centres on individuals and the essence of their existence, emphasising their focus on God and dependence on him, stemming from a faith shaped by the divine actions of the crucifixion and resurrection (Magezi 2019b:1). The involvement of spiritual pressures underscores the necessity for the church to reassess and introspect to determine how it might fulfil the needs of others, like Christ, while also serving as a spiritual resource in times of adversity (Dames & Dames 2025:11). The church has historically played a vital role in education and caregiving. Jansen, Pretorius and Van Niekerk (2009:67–68), referencing Sifuna (1990) and Maarthai (2009:38), assert that the church has a longstanding engagement in formal education in Africa, a position it continues to uphold. Moreover, Jansen et al. (2009:70) contend that the church possesses a divine mandate and hence should not undertake obligations that belong to other societal organisations or endorse secular ideology in education. This indicates that the church should maintain its historical emphasis on a holistic approach to foster comprehensive counselling services.

Pastoral counsellors possess distinctive traits that differentiate them from other professionals. A primary distinction resides in their training. Pastoral counsellors are equipped to incorporate the theological anthropology, the theology of grace and redemption, and resources from religious communities into their practice, setting them apart from other mental health professionals. Roberts (2017:xxiii) posits that the fundamental inquiry in Christian theological anthropology is, ‘What constitutes the image of God in humanity?’ In practical theology, the imago Dei shapes the integration of pastoral counselling into SCSs. Perceiving pupils as embodiments of the divine image (Gn 1:26) implies that counselling should cultivate their intrinsic dignity, purpose, and relational potential with God and others. A second distinguishing trait relates to the training trajectory of pastoral counsellors; nevertheless, it must be recognised that this trajectory is inconsistent among jurisdictions and even within South Africa. Training is organised in stages rather than being individualised. Pastoral counsellors often acquire a higher certificate or diploma at National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 5–6, which includes biblical and theological ideas, essential counselling skills, ethics, active listening, crisis intervention, and referral systems. Pastoral counsellors generally hold a qualification at NQF Level 7–8, including a bachelor’s degree, honours degree or postgraduate diploma in practical theology, pastoral counselling, or a related field, frequently augmented by previous or simultaneous qualifications in psychology or social work. The designation of specialist or pastoral therapist aligns with NQF Level 9–10 qualifications, encompassing master’s or doctoral degrees, in addition to supervised practice hours. In South Africa, these titles are awarded by the CPSC, a specialised body of the SAQA-registered ACRP, each linked to a corresponding NQF-registered scope of practice. A clinical-psychological focus is not intrinsically incorporated in pastoral counsellor training. Meyer (2020) demonstrates that the existing CPSC classification functions primarily as a designation for religious practitioners, rather than a licence for legislative counsellors or therapists, with training prerequisites that vary considerably among providers. In jurisdictions where pastoral counsellors undertake clinical-equivalent roles, such as those recognised by the United States Association for Clinical Pastoral Education (ACPE), or the National Board for Certified Pastoral Counsellors (NBCPC). Additional requirements typically include a Master of Divinity, a master’s or doctorate in pastoral counselling, at least one unit of Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE), and several hundred hours of supervised practice (Odeleye et al. 2024:104). This article advocates for a minimum standard to guarantee the theological integrity and clinical accountability of pastoral counsellors within South African SCSs: a recognised NQF Level 7 qualification in practical theology or pastoral counselling, supplemented by formal coursework in counselling theory, trauma-informed care, cultural competence, and ethics; supervised pastoral counselling practice hours, and CPSC-designated affiliation with an appropriate scope of practice. When pastoral counsellors function within a multidisciplinary SCSs-team with HPCSA-registered psychologists and social workers, the necessity for legislative regulation, proposed by Meyer (2020), becomes a must rather than a potential ideal. Training may also encompass certain focal areas, such as trauma-informed pastoral care and assistance for mental health concerns (Odeleye et al. 2024:104). This indicates that pastoral counsellors are educated in both psychology and theology. Abidogun (2022:6) asserts that pastoral therapy is unique, as it integrates psychological and theological concepts to enhance the healing process. Secondly, a distinguishing quality that differentiates them from other professionals is their educational attainment. In certain cases, pastoral counsellors have more extensive education than social workers. The educational credentials of pastoral counsellors in South Africa are significantly varied. Some individuals hold formal academic qualifications in practical theology, complemented by additional training in psychology, social work, or counselling; many are primarily educated in theological institutions, or seminaries that do not include clinical or psychological components; and others serve as lay counsellors, with little to no formal tertiary education. This heterogeneity presents a regulatory difficulty, noted by Meyer (2020), and is a principal reason why integration into SCSs cannot depend exclusively on the title pastoral counsellor. The proposed minimal standard for SCSs integration, presented in this article, addresses this issue by specifying certification level, supervised practice hours, ethical training, and CPSC Designated Affiliation as prerequisites. Conversely, numerous colleges offer students a variety of pastoral therapies, including kerygmatic, basic, Charismatic African, and client-centred approaches, aligning with their faith orientations (Neethling 2003a:36–37). This comprehensive theological education enables therapists to address ethical difficulties from doctrinal perspectives. Conversely, church institutions serve as intermediaries between spiritual direction and practical assistance. This method guarantees that counselling therapies are both psychological and congruent with the church’s goal and the client’s religious beliefs. Thirdly, pastoral counsellors recognise the constraints of their practice. According to Neethling (2003b:36–37), pastoral therapists, in contrast to medical doctors, lack the authorisation to prescribe drugs. Pastoral counsellors operate in a distinctive realm, integrating spiritual and relational methodologies while complementing clinical care rather than competing with it. Odeleye’s (2022:8) study emphasises the necessity for pastoral counsellors to excel in establishing limits within their profession. This corresponds with the findings of Lee et al. (2025:436) that counsellors recognised the necessity of referring severe patients to professional therapy. This underscores the proficiency of pastoral counsellors in facilitating referrals. By functioning within their parameters and integrating spiritual and relational care, pastoral counsellors enable the church to utilise this adaptive strategy to evolve into a comprehensive support network. This atmosphere combines spiritual advice with professional therapy, and as Kgatle and Spaumer (2023:2) assert, this practice will enable the local church to provide members with both spiritual direction and professional therapy. Thus, the church may establish a secure environment for students to express their challenges and obtain emotional support, while also motivating them to pursue professional assistance when necessary, utilising the pastor’s network.

Theology and Ubuntu both emphasise the importance of communal solidarity (Resane 2022:4). The African concept of Ubuntu encapsulates a reflective understanding of the individual in connection with their community. In the domain of SCSs, Ubuntu exemplifies a holistic approach, embracing the notion that ‘I am because we are’, which transcends mere rhetoric and signifies a dedication to enhancing students’ overall well-being. Furthermore, Resane (2022:1, 4) defines Ubuntu as a principle that underscores oneness and communalism. Individuals cannot exist in solitude, as humans are inherently social creatures. Ubuntu illustrates our interconnectedness, mutual dependence, and role within a larger context. This aim necessitates a comprehensive approach to decolonise SCSs. CordisBright (2018:1) underscores that multidisciplinary collaboration enhances knowledge, skills, and practices beyond service boundaries. It enables the reconfiguration and collective settlement of challenges in health and social care provision. Multidisciplinary teams consist of professionals from many healthcare fields, collaborating on patient care. This comprehensive care promotes a deep understanding of the complex needs and ensures the satisfaction of diverse requirements. Naidoo and Cartwright (2018:14) advocate for interdisciplinary teams in SCSs inside higher education, consisting of psychologists, social workers, educators, researchers, and administrative staff. This technique enables each member to provide distinct expertise, hence augmenting the service’s efficacy. Pastoral counsellors ought to be incorporated on the list provided by Naidoo and Cartwright. The exclusion of pastoral counsellors is problematic from a religious perspective, as secular therapy neglects the spiritual dimensions of students, concentrating exclusively on physical, emotional, and psychological factors. This suggests that higher education institutions neglect the spiritual aspects of students. This contradicts holistic religious perspectives that perceive humans as an interconnected organism, consisting of body, soul, and spirit. Student counselling services should include pastoral counsellors within multidisciplinary teams to effectively address clients’ physical, social, psychological, and spiritual needs (Mandelkow et al. 2021:2). Excluding pastoral counsellors from SCSs will undermine the acknowledgement of students’ spiritual dimensions and the intended multidisciplinary framework. An entirely integrated interdisciplinary team would incorporate them to utilise their expertise and address the spiritual aspects of students. The universal approach is inadequate concerning students’ wellness. Students require holistic treatment due to their unique emotional, psychological, and spiritual characteristics. This signifies that no professional should function beyond their specified area of activity. Pastoral counsellors should be incorporated into SCSs.

Academic pursuits can be arduous, as students encounter numerous challenges, including personal, emotional, psychological, and spiritual issues. Although secular counselling tackles many of these obstacles, spiritual concerns are frequently overlooked. The justification for this integration is that students’ issues may encompass not only emotional and psychological dimensions but also a spiritual aspect. Mason’s (2017:137) study identified spiritual stressors as a prominent issue among students, with 132 females (64.71%) and 72 males (35.29%) expressing spiritual worries, resulting in a total of 204 responses (90.67%). Theologically, these findings underscore the influence of spiritual and faith-related matters on students’ overall well-being. This indicates that spiritual well-being is inextricably linked to physical, emotional, and mental flourishing; one cannot exist without the others being considered. It also asserts that humans possess a spiritual dimension that must be nurtured for completeness, embodying the essence of Ubuntu. The incorporation of pastoral counselling into SCSs is crucial for addressing spiritual stress, and hence enhancing support structures. Singh and Bhagwan (2020:404) similarly emphasise the importance of clients’ spiritual lives, suggesting that their integration into care may improve overall wellness. This substantiates the notion that pastoral counselling ought to be an integral element of holistic student care, considering its capacity to improve spiritual needs and health outcomes. Lee, Saili and Yusuf (2024:213) assert that neglecting religious values, including spiritual dimensions, when confronting life’s obstacles, may seem superficial and indifferent. This pertains to spiritual neglect, when the spiritual dimensions of human nature are overlooked in favour of other facets, including physical, emotional, and psychological elements. This approach contravenes the holistic theological anthropology that perceives persons as integrated entities, highlighting a theological inadequacy in acknowledging the complete imago Dei in students, as well as a clinical deficiency in addressing their comprehensive needs. Addressing this deficiency necessitates a reassessment of SCSs and a transition from secular methodologies. A compelling justification for integration is the decolonisation of SCSs. Secular counselling embodies a colonial mentality that marginalises indigenous and African viewpoints. Sinclair (2019:71) asserted that South African SCSs should reassess Western-centric methodologies and cultivate more Africanised techniques to identify and confront colonial and repressive effects. In essence, it is imperative to decolonise SCSs in South Africa. Western paradigms frequently delineate the mind from the body, whereas African perspectives underscore the interrelation of mind, body, and spirit. The incorporation of pastoral therapy can rectify historical exclusions by reinstating African spiritual ideas that were marginalised by Western secular counselling. This integration would enhance counselling services that are more culturally relevant and contextualised to African perspectives. It could additionally enhance current student services, providing an extra tier of support.

Pastoral counselling employs several counselling skills and methodologies. These competencies and methodologies equip pastoral counsellors with a systematic framework to deliver significant guidance and enhance the efficacy of their treatments. Pastoral counsellors assist clients in addressing their emotional, psychological, and spiritual needs (Kilengi 2023:152). These counsellors can employ the necessary skills and methodologies in student counselling.

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) is psychotherapy that analyses the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. This asserts that detrimental emotions and behaviours originate from cognitive processes influenced by relationships and the environment. It is efficacious in the treatment of major depressive disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, drug use disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Turner & Napolitano 2010:226, 227). Theologically, several counsellors began to implement CBT to tackle psychological disorders, including anxiety. This adoption has faced considerable criticism. Proponents of biblical counselling in the nouthetic tradition, notably Adams (1970) and Lambert (2016), argue that the reliance on secular psychological principles diminishes the authority of Scripture and creates discord between secular methodologies and biblical principles. Powlison (2010) and Adams (2010) contend that CBT erodes theological certainty and overlooks critical aspects of spiritual existence, particularly the concepts of sin and transformation, due to the absence of a biblically grounded norm for evaluating thoughts and actions. Although it incorporates aspects of human responsibility, it is insufficient because it fails to adequately anchor healing in the Christological framework (Iskandar et al. 2025:546). The efficacy of CBT in many mental health disorders indicates that pastoral counsellors may integrate its ideas, provided this integration does not compromise the authority of scripture in any respect.

The person-centred approach underscores the importance of the therapeutic relationship and the responsibility of the counsellor in fostering a non-judgemental atmosphere that enables clients to articulate their thoughts and feelings. This perspective posits that individuals possess the potential for internal growth and development (Kilengi 2023:153). This approach operates on the principle of honouring and acknowledging the client’s dignity, which embodies the essence of the imago Dei. The creation of individuals in the image and likeness of the divine underscores the intrinsic dignity of each person (Mufanebadza & Masengwe 2025:1). This advocates for the recognition of each individual’s intrinsic dignity and value. Through this method, pastoral counsellors can prioritise nurturing and establishing a secure, non-judgemental environment for students to express their feelings as embodiments of the divine image.

Pastoral therapy utilises resources such as prayer, Scripture, and community engagement to facilitate individuals’ spiritual development and connectedness (Abidogun 2022:8). Consequently, pastoral counselling incorporates Scripture to assist persons in navigating their difficulties. This indicates that pastoral counsellors can utilise biblical principles to assist students in addressing their difficulties and promoting their overall well-being. In pastoral therapy, Scripture serves as a resource for healing. Donkor (2022:5) stressed that the objective of pastoral care and therapy is to assist persons in addressing their issues successfully to facilitate recovery. Healing is associated with the pneumatological perspective, which derives the original and intended meaning of cura animarum. This perspective on soul care conceptualises completeness as healing, encompassing both physical and spiritual restoration of all existential life challenges. ‘Healing is thus suggested as a comprehensive method of caregiving’ (Dames & Dames 2025:5, citing Louw 2017:3). A further element of this methodology is prayer. Prayer, a prevalent motif in both the Old and New Testament, is essential for Christians. According to Van der Merwe (2026), prayer functions as a means of communication with God and as an endeavour to enhance our relationship with him. The Bible underscores that a prayer offered in earnest faith can achieve remarkable outcomes (Ja 5:15); it can result in both physical and spiritual rejuvenation. In the realm of student counselling, prayer serves as a mechanism and a plea for divine intervention, enabling God to direct both the counsellor and the counselee during the process.

Pastoral counselling encompasses seven functions. These functions are crucial in fostering comprehensive wellbeing, personal development, and an enhanced connection with oneself and others. They are crucial in tackling human difficulties and facilitating transformation. According to Donkor (2022:5), pastoral therapy involves interventions by Christian representatives designed to heal, sustain, guide, and reconcile persons’ meanings and existential concerns. In addition to the aforementioned purposes of healing, maintaining, leading, and reconciling, pastoral counselling also encompasses empowering, liberating, and loving functions.

The incorporation of pastoral counselling into SCSs requires the implementation of a more comprehensive strategy, meeting students’ spiritual and emotional requirements. This integration facilitates the enhancement of counsellors’ capabilities to address students’ spiritual issues and diminish occurrences of poor spiritual engagement. This article poses a significant theological inquiry: What defines an individual’s wholeness? This inquiry highlights the disregard for spiritual qualities, suggesting that secular counselling functions inside a prejudiced mindset. It is essential to recognise that students are multi-dimensional beings and should be seen as spiritual, emotional, psychological, and physical entities. This necessitates a pragmatic theological answer that contextualises current frameworks and demonstrates cultural sensitivity, suggesting that pastoral care in higher education should honour individuals as divine image bearers (Imago Dei) from various faith traditions. This underscores the church’s obligation to deliver comprehensive pastoral care that includes spiritual, emotional, and psychological dimensions. The church needs to enhance current campus ministries instead of opposing them. This collaboration will benefit both students and the counselling services. The incorporation of pastoral counselling highlights the imperative to decolonise SCSs, transitioning away from Western secular approaches. The decolonisation process is a theological endeavour that requires the creation of indigenised pastoral care models based on African theology and Ubuntu values.